Reading 2 "Civilization"
Between 4000 and 3000 B.C., significant technological developments began to transform the Neolithic towns. The invention of writing enabled records to be kept, and the use of metals marked a new level of human control over the environment and its resources. Already before 4000 B.C., craftspeople had discovered that metal-bearing rocks could be heated to liquefy metals, which could then be cast in molds to produce tools and weapons that were more useful than stone instruments. Although copper was the first metal to be utilized in producing tools, after 4000 B.C. craftspeople in western Asia discovered that a combination of copper and tin produced bronze, a much harder and more durable metal than copper. Its widespread use has led historians to speak of a Bronze Age from around 3000 to 1200 B.C., when bronze was increasingly replaced by iron.
→ At first, Neolithic settlements were hardly more than villages. But as their inhabitants mastered the art of farming, they gradually began to give birth to more complex human societies. As wealth increased, such societies began to develop armies and to build walled cities. By the beginning of the Bronze Age, the concentration of larger numbers of people in the river valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt was leading to a whole new pattern for human life.
→ As we have seen, early human beings formed small groups that developed a simple culture that enabled them to survive. As human societies grew and developed greater complexity, a new form of human existence—called civilization-came into being. A civilization is a complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements. {{U}}Historians have{{/U}} {{U}}identified a number of bas c character st cs of civilization, most of which are{{/U}} {{U}}evident inthe Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations.{{/U}} These include (1) an urban revolution; cities became the focal points for political, economic, social, cultural, and religious development; (2) a distinct religious structure; the gods were deemed crucial to the community's success, and professional priestly classes, as stewards of the gods' property, regulated relations with the gods; (3) new political and military structures; an organized government bureaucracy arose to meet the administrative demands of the growing population while armies were organized togain land and power; (4) a new social structure based on economic power; while kings and an upper class of priests, political leaders, and warriors dominated, there also existed large groups of free people (farmers, artisans, craftspeople) and at the very bottom, socially, a class of slaves; (5) the development of writing; kings, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to keep records; and (6) new forms of significant artistic and intellectual activity, such as monumental architectural structures, usually religious, occu- pied a {{U}}prominent{{/U}} place in urban environments.
→ Why early civilizations developed remains difficult to explain.
Since civilizations developed independently in
India, China, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, can general causes be identified that
would explain why all of these civilizations emerged? 
A number of possible explanations of the
beginning of civilization have been suggested. A theory of challenge and
response maintains that challenges forced human beings to make efforts that
resulted in the rise of civilization. Some scholars have adhered to a material
explanation. [] Material forces, such as the growth of food surpluses, made
possible the specialization of labor and development of large communities with
bureaucratic organization. 
Between 4000 and 3000 B.C., significant technological developments began to transform the Neolithic towns. The invention of writing enabled records to be kept, and the use of metals marked a new level of human control over the environment and its resources. Already before 4000 B.C., craftspeople had discovered that metal-bearing rocks could be heated to liquefy metals, which could then be cast in molds to produce tools and weapons that were more useful than stone instruments. Although copper was the first metal to be utilized in producing tools, after 4000 B.C. craftspeople in western Asia discovered that a combination of copper and tin produced bronze, a much harder and more durable metal than copper. Its widespread use has led historians to speak of a Bronze Age from around 3000 to 1200 B.C., when bronze was increasingly replaced by iron.
→ At first, Neolithic settlements were hardly more than villages. But as their inhabitants mastered the art of farming, they gradually began to give birth to more complex human societies. As wealth increased, such societies began to develop armies and to build walled cities. By the beginning of the Bronze Age, the concentration of larger numbers of people in the river valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt was leading to a whole new pattern for human life.
→ As we have seen, early human beings formed small groups that developed a simple culture that enabled them to survive. As human societies grew and developed greater complexity, a new form of human existence—called civilization-came into being. A civilization is a complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements. {{U}}Historians have{{/U}} {{U}}identified a number of bas c character st cs of civilization, most of which are{{/U}} {{U}}evident inthe Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations.{{/U}} These include (1) an urban revolution; cities became the focal points for political, economic, social, cultural, and religious development; (2) a distinct religious structure; the gods were deemed crucial to the community's success, and professional priestly classes, as stewards of the gods' property, regulated relations with the gods; (3) new political and military structures; an organized government bureaucracy arose to meet the administrative demands of the growing population while armies were organized togain land and power; (4) a new social structure based on economic power; while kings and an upper class of priests, political leaders, and warriors dominated, there also existed large groups of free people (farmers, artisans, craftspeople) and at the very bottom, socially, a class of slaves; (5) the development of writing; kings, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to keep records; and (6) new forms of significant artistic and intellectual activity, such as monumental architectural structures, usually religious, occu- pied a {{U}}prominent{{/U}} place in urban environments.
→ Why early civilizations developed remains difficult to explain.
Since civilizations developed independently in
India, China, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, can general causes be identified that
would explain why all of these civilizations emerged? A number of possible explanations of the
beginning of civilization have been suggested. A theory of challenge and
response maintains that challenges forced human beings to make efforts that
resulted in the rise of civilization. Some scholars have adhered to a material
explanation. [] Material forces, such as the growth of food surpluses, made
possible the specialization of labor and development of large communities with
bureaucratic organization.
单选题
Which of the following is the best definition of a civilization?
【正确答案】
B
【答案解析】... Neolithic settlements were hardly more than villages. But as their inhabitants mastered the art of farming, they gradually began to give birth to more complex human societies [civilizations]." Choice A is not correct because the Neolithic settlements preceded civilizations. Choice C is not correct because agriculture is mentioned as a cause of the rise in complex cultures, not as a definition of civilization. Choice D is not correct because the population centers increased in size as civilizations grew, but other basic characteristics had to be present as well.
单选题
The word {{U}}its{{/U}} in the passage refers to
【正确答案】
B
【答案解析】"Although copper was the first metal to be utilized in producing tools, after 4000 B.C., craftspeople in western Asia discovered that a combination of copper and tin produced bronze, a much harder and more durable metal than copper. Its [bronze's] widespread use has led historians to speak of a Bronze Age." The pronoun "its" does not refer to Choices A, C, or D.
单选题
According to paragraph 2, what happens as societies become more
prosperous?
【正确答案】
B
【答案解析】"As wealth increased, such societies began to develop armies and to build walled cities." Choices A, C, and D may be logical, but they are not mentioned and may not be concluded from information in the passage.
单选题
The word {{U}}hardly{{/U}} in the passage is closest in meaning to
【正确答案】
C
【答案解析】Inthis passage, hardlyis a synonym for"barely."
单选题
Why does the author mention Neolithic towns in paragraph 2?
【正确答案】
D
【答案解析】Because the author states that Neolithic towns gave "birth to more complex human societies," it may be concluded that they are mentioned to contrast them with the civilizations that evolved. Choice A is not correct because a Neolithic town does not qualify as a civilization. Choice B is not correct because writing systems were not part of Neolithic settlements. Choice C is not correct because Neolithic settlements were referred to as villages, and no argument was made for the classification.
单选题
According to paragraph 3, how was the class system structured?
【正确答案】
B
【答案解析】... a new social structure... [included] kings and an upper class.., free people... and a class of slaves." Choice A is not correct because it does not include free people. Choice C is not correct because it does not include free people. Choice D is not mentioned and may not be concluded from information in the passage. The new structure described is based on economics, not on education.
单选题
Which of the sentences below best expresses the information in the
highlighted statement in the passage? The other choices change the meaning or
leave out important information.
【正确答案】
A
【答案解析】... the majority paraphrases "most of which."
单选题
The word {{U}}crucial{{/U}} in the passage is closest in meaning to
【正确答案】
A
【答案解析】In this passage, fundamentalis a synonym for"crucial."
单选题
The word {{U}}prominent{{/U}} in the passage is closest in meaning to
【正确答案】
B
【答案解析】In this passage, important is a synonym for "prominent." Context comes from the word " monumental" in the same sentence.
单选题
According to paragraph 4, how can the independent development of
civilization in different geographic regions be explained?
【正确答案】
B
【答案解析】"A number of possible explanations of the beginning of civilization have been suggested." Choice A is not correct because scholars do not agree on one explanation. Choice C is not correct because trade routes are not mentioned in paragraph 4. Choice D is not correct because coincidence is not mentioned as one of the possible explanations.
单选题
All of the following are cited as reasons why civilizations developed
EXCEPT
【正确答案】
C
【答案解析】Choice A is mentioned in paragraph 4, sentence 9. Choice B is mentioned in paragraph 4, sentence 8. Choice D is mentioned in paragraph 4, sentence 6.
单选题
Look at the four squares [■] that show where the following sentence
could be inserted in the passage.
Some historians believe they can be established.
Where could the sentence best be added?
Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in the passage.
Some historians believe they can be established.
Where could the sentence best be added?
Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in the passage.
【正确答案】
B
【答案解析】A rhetorical question is a question that is asked and answered by the same speaker. Response is a transitional device that connects the insert sentence with the previous rhetorical question. Choices A, C, and D are not correct because the pronoun "they" in the insert sentence does not refer to plural nouns in the previous sentence.
填空题
Directions: An introduction for a short summary of
the passage appears below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer
choices that mention the most important points in the passage. Some sentences do
not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not included in
the passage or they are minor points from the passage. This question is
worth 2 points.
Certain qualities appear to define a civilization.
·__________
·__________
·__________
A. Free citizens who work in professions for pay
B. Bureaucracies for the government and armies
C. Libraries to house art and written records
D. A strategic location near rivers or the sea
E. Organized religion, writing, and art
F. A densely populated group with a class Structure
Certain qualities appear to define a civilization.
·__________
·__________
·__________
Answer Choices
A. Free citizens who work in professions for pay
B. Bureaucracies for the government and armies
C. Libraries to house art and written records
D. A strategic location near rivers or the sea
E. Organized religion, writing, and art
F. A densely populated group with a class Structure