问答题 Read the following passage and answer three questions.
Teachers employ different types of conceptual organization and meaning. One level of meaning relates to subject matter knowledge and how curricular and content aspects of teaching are conceptualized (Shulman 1987). Woods (1996) describes teachers" conceptions of lessons as made up of conceptual units at different levels of abstraction. He distinguishes between the following: overall conceptual goals —the overall purposes teachers identify for a course; global conceptual units —the individual subcomponents of the curriculum (e. g., the grammar, reading, writing, and listening components of an integrated skills course); intermediate conceptual units -activities or clusters of activities framed in terms of accomplishing one of the higher-level conceptual goals; and local conceptual units —the specific things teachers do to achieve particular instructional effects. Other constructs that have been proposed to account for how teachers realize the curricular agendas they set for lessons and the kinds of cognitive processes they employ include lesson formats (Wong-Fillmore 1985), tasks (Doyle 1983), scripts , and routines (Shavelson and Stem 1981). Constructs such as these seek to describe how teachers approach the subject matter of teaching and how they transform content into learning. Much of this research draws on a framework of cognitive psychology and has provided evidence of the kinds of pedagogical content knowledge, reasoning, and problem solving teachers make use of as they teach (Cliff 1991).
In addition to the curricular goals and content, teachers have other more personal views of teaching (Johnston 1990). Zeichner, Tabachnick, and Densmore (1987) try to capture this with the notion of perspective, which they define as the ways in which teachers understand, interpret, and define their environment and use such interpretation to guide their actions. They followed teachers through their year-long professional training and their first year in the classroom, and found that their personal perspectives served as powerful influences on how they taught. In describing the basis for teachers" conceptualizations of good practice, Clandinin (1985, 1986) introduced the concept of image , which she describes as "a central construct for understanding teachers" knowledge" (1985:362). An image is a metaphor, such as "the classroom as home," "setting up a relationship with children," or "meeting the needs of students," that teachers may have in mind when they teach. Johnston (1992) suggests that images such as these are not always conscious, that they reflect how teachers view themselves in their teaching contexts, and that they form the subconscious assumptions on which their teaching practices are based. In a study of what second language teachers perceive to be good classes, Senior (1995) found that experienced ESL teachers in an Australian educational setting attempting to implement a communicative methodology appeared to have arrived at the tacit assumption that, to promote successful language learning, it is necessary to develop a bonded class—that is, one in which there is a positive, mutually supportive group atmosphere. The teachers appeared to employ a range of both conscious and unconscious strategies in order to develop a spirit of cohesion within their class groups.
Halkes and Deijkers (1984) refer to teachers" teaching criteria , which are defined as "personal subjective values a person tries to pursue or keep constant while teaching." Teachers hold personal views of themselves, their learners, their goals, and their role in the classroom and they presumably try to reflect these in their practice. Marland (1987) examined the principles used to guide and interpret teaching, and identified five such working principles that were derived from stimulated recall interviews with teachers. For example, the "principle of progressive checking" involved checking students" progress periodically, identifying problems, and providing individual encouragement for low-ability students. Conners (1978) studied elementary teachers and found that all of those in her study used three overarching principles of practice to guide and explain their interactive teaching behavior: "suppressing emotions," "teacher authenticity," and "self-monitoring." The "principle of teacher authenticity" involved the teacher presenting herself in such a way that good personal relationships with students and a socially supportive classroom atmosphere would be achieved. This principle required the teacher to attempt to be open, sincere, and honest, as well as fallible.

问答题 What could be the title of this passage?

问答题 What are the functions of those conceptual units as described by Woods (1996) in language teaching?

问答题 Discuss the relationship between "perspective" and "image" and between "image" and "teaching criteria" as mentioned in this passage?