【正确答案】 1、正确答案：Shifts or shifts of expression are originally defined by Catford as " departures from correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL". Shifts described by Catford are purely linguistic, being grammatical or lexical in nature. It is Popovic who broadens the concept of shifts. He defines shifts more generally as " all that appears as new with respect to the original, or fails to appear where it might have been expected" : he also comments that shifts represent " the relationship between the wording of the original work and that of the translation". Toury further develops the notion of shifts. He divides them into obligatory shifts and non-obligatory shifts. The reasons why shifts are unavoidable and inevitable in translation are as follows: There exist inherent differences of intellectual and aesthetic values in different cultures. Thus, it is a fact that losses, gains, and changes of meaning are a necessary part in the process of translation. In order to render faithfully the content of the original despite the differences between the two languages, one of the best ways is to resort to shifts. Also, by analyzing shifts in terms of cultural values and literary norms, the theoretical horizon can be extended. So shifts are unavoidable and inevitable in translation.