Before the end of the eighteenth century, the economy of England was primarily agricultural, transportation was poor, and manufacturing was carried out in the laborers’ homes. The invention of the spinning jenny (1763), the water-powered spinning machine (1771) and other mechanical devices gave rise to the factory system and created a need for mechanical power. The application of Watt’s steam engine (invented in 1769) to the cotton, coal mining, and iron industries, greatly increased the productivity of English workers and placed England at the forefront of manufacturing and commerce.

In America, the corresponding transformation and development of mechanical engineering did not take place until after 1850. The key development was the invention of the steam engine, which made available large quantities of cheap and dependable power. Those civil engineers concerned with machines were called mechanical engineers, and as new sciences and skills developed, they became specialists in the new profession. Watt’s successful engine also spurred application of steam power to water, land, and air transportation. The engineering problems in adapting the steam engine to shipboard use were the least difficult, and by 1786 several inventors had constructed mechanical boats. In 1807 Robert Fulton came up with the winning combination of a dependable Watt engine, an improved hull design, and strong political backing. With the advent of high pressure engines and iron rails, the steam locomotive became practical.

The personal vehicle that put America on wheels resulted from a series of interrelated developments. Otto perfected his internal combustion engine in Germany in 1876. The popularity of the bicycle had brought tubular frames, wire-spoked wheels, chain drive, pneumatic tires, and better roads. In 1885 Karl Benz in Germany built what is generally accepted as first reliable automobile. American inventors Charles and Frank Duryea, Henry Ford, and Hiram Maxim were among the first to make significant contributions. The automobile was particularly suited to America’s geography and independent spirit, and Ford’s assembly-line methods put the Model T within popular reach.