单选题
The Causes of Conflict
A. The evidence taken from the observation of the behavior of apes and children suggests that there are three clearly separable groups of simple causes for the outbreak of fighting and the exhibition of aggressiveness by individuals.
B. One of the most common causes of fighting among both children and apes was over the possession of external objects. The disputed ownership of any desired object—food, clothes, toys, females, and the affection of others—was sufficient ground for an appeal to force. On Monkey Hill disputes over females were responsible for the death of thirty out of thirty-three males. Two points are of particular interest to notice about these fights for possession.
C. In the first place they are often carried to such an extreme that they end in the complete destruction of the objects of common desire. The aggression is so overriding (压倒一切的) once it has begun that it may utterly destroy the object for which the struggle began and even the self for whose advantage the struggle was undertaken.
D. In the second place it is observable, at least in children, that the object for whose possession aggression is started may sometimes be desired by one person merely because it is desired by someone else. There were many cases observed by Dr. Isaacs where toys and other objects which had been discarded as useless were violently defended by their owners when they became the object of some other child's desire. Therefore, the grounds of possessiveness may be irrational (非理性的). Whether sensible or irrational, contests over possession are commonly the occasion for the most ruthless (残忍的) use of force among children and apes.
E. One of the commonest kinds of object arousing possessive desire is the notice, good will, affection, and service of other members of the group. Among children one of the commonest causes of quarreling was 'jealousy'—the desire for the exclusive possession of the interest and affection of someone else, particularly the adults in charge of the children. This form of behavior is sometimes classified as a separate cause of conflict under the name of 'rivalry' (竞争) or a 'jealousy.' But, in point of fact, it seems to us that it is only one variety of possessiveness. The object of desire is not a material object—that is the only difference. The object is the interest and affection of other persons. What is wanted, however, is the exclusive right to that interest and affection—a property in emotions instead of in things. As subjective emotions and as causes of conflict, jealousy and rivalry are fundamentally similar to the desire for the possession of toys or food. Indeed, very often the persons and property which is desired, are the sources of toys and food.
F. Possessiveness is, then, in all its forms a common cause of fighting. If we are to look behind the mere facts of behavior for an explanation of this phenomenon, a teleological (目的论的) cause is not far to seek. The exclusive right to objects of desire is a clear and simple advantage to the possessor of it. It carries with it the certainty and continuity of satisfaction. Where there is only one claimant to a good, frustration and the possibility of loss is reduced to a minimum. It is, therefore, obvious that, if the ends of the self are the only recognized ends, the whole powers of the agent, including the fullest use of his available force, will be used to establish and defend exclusive rights to possession.
G. Another cause of aggression closely allied to possessiveness is the tendency for children and apes greatly to hate the intrusion (侵入) of a stranger into their group. A new child in the class may be laughed at, isolated, and disliked. A new monkey may be poked and bitten to death. This suggests strongly that the reason for the aggression is fundamentally possessiveness. The competition of the newcomers is feared. The present members of the group feel that there will be more rivals for the food or the attention of the adults.
H. Finally, another common source of fighting among children is a failure or frustration in their own activity. Sometimes a child will be prevented either by natural causes such as bad weather or illness or by the opposition of some adult from doing something he wishes to do. The child may also frustrate himself by failing, through lack of skill or strength, to complete successfully some desired activity. Such a child will be in a bad temper. And, what is of interest from our point of view, the child will indulge in aggression—attacking and fighting other children or adults. Sometimes the object of aggression will simply be the cause of frustration, and it's a straightforward reaction. But sometimes the person or thing that suffers the aggression is irrelevant to offense.
I. Of course, this kind of behavior is so common that everyone feels it to be obvious and to constitute no serious scientific problem. That a small boy should pull his sister's hair because it is raining does not appear to an ordinary person to be an occasion for solemn scientific inquiry. He is, as we should all say, 'in a bad temper.' Yet it is not, in fact, really obvious either why revenge should be taken on entirely innocent objects, since no good to the aggressor can come of it, or why children being miserable should seek to make others miserable also. It is just a fact of human behavior that cannot really be deduced from any general principle of reason.
J. But it is, as we shall see, of very great importance for our purpose. It shows how it is possible, at the simplest and most primitive level, for aggression and fighting to spring from an entirely irrelevant and partially hidden cause. Fighting to possess a desired object is straightforward and rational, compared with fighting that occurs because, in a different and unrelated activity, some frustration has barred the road to pleasure. The importance of this possibility for an understanding of group conflict must already be obvious.