填空题The majority of the population lives in noisy massive tower blocks. Citiescan be frightened places. The sense of belonging to a community tends to dis- (56)______appear when you live thirty floors up in a skyscraper. Strange enough, whereas (57)______in the past the inhabitants of one street all knew each other, nowadays peopleon the same floor in tower blocks even say hello to each other. Country life, (58)______on the other hand, differs from this kind of isolated existence in that a senseof community generally keep the in-habitants of a small village together. (59)______People have the advantage of knowing that there is always someone to turn towhen they need help. So country life has disadvantages too. For example, (60)______shopping becomes a major problem and for something slightly out of the ordi- (61)______nary you have to go for an expedition to the nearest large town. The country (62)______has the advantage of peace and quietness, but suffers from the disadvantage ofbeing cut off. The city has noise and population which do harm to humanhealth. But one of their main advantages is that you are at the centre of things (63)______and that life doesn't come to an end even at ten at night. Some people havefound a compromise between two: they expressed their preference for the qui- (64)______et life by leaving for the city and moving to the country within commuting (65)______distance of the large city.

填空题Brain Teasing In the early industrial age, men in white coats would walk around factories with watches and clipboards measuring the time it took workers to perform specific tasks. These "time-and-motion" experts set out to 1 labour productivity, and thence to improve it. The sort of jobs they were measuring, however, 2 longer enjoy such a premium in the places 3 they measured them: less than 10% of today"s jobs in America are in manufacturing, and less than 15% of 4 in Britain. Workers of the western world are now employed largely in service industries, where they are paid 5 their brain rather than their brawn. Many of them can be called "knowledge workers"—between a quarter and a half. Knowledge workers are those whose primary tasks 6 the manipulation of knowledge and information. These people are the creators of 7 in western economies today, yet 8 anybody is measuring their output and seeking ways to 9 it. Somebody should. Finding ways to improve the productivity of knowledge workers is one of the most important economic 10 of our time. Management"s 11 role is to make knowledge more 12 . Little has happened in the intervening time, partly 13 this is not an 14 task. There are no time-and-motion 15 that can measure how many thoughts go 16 knowledge workers" heads or the value of their creative 17 . Does that therefore mean that companies must (as most of them have until now) leave these valuable assets entirely to their 18 devices, to work as each of them sees fit 19 they, their employers, merely stand and wait? The answer to this question does not have to be 20 . Some companies have tried to make their knowledge workers more productive. By looking at the ways in which different workers use knowledge, we could build a framework within which companies can start thinking about how to make the process more productive.

填空题 Growing up without a father around can present a lot of challenges to a girl. Quite apart from the behaviour problems and lower academic achievement that can accompany father absence, there are also potential consequences for sexual behaviour and relationships later in life: Daughters who grow up without a father in their home are more likely to reach puberty earlier, have sex earlier and are more likely to get divorced. Dr Lynda Boothroyd and Professor David Perrett at St Andrews University asked webrecruited volunteers to rate the appearance of the faces of three groups of women: those whose parents had a good relationship as they were growing tip, those whose father was absent, and those whose parents stayed together but had a poor relationship.66. __________. So why should separated or warring parents be associated with masculinity in daughters? One theory is that stress during childhood could raise cortisol levels, and there is some evidence that this can have masculinising effects.67. __________. The researchers suggest that the link between parental relationships and appearance could have repercussions for the daughters' choices of partner and success in relationships later in life, because, in general, less attractive women need to have lower expectations of partner quality or be willing to settle for short-term relationships.68. __________. Dr David Waynforth, of Durham University, studied the effects of father absence in a Mayan population in Belize and found that sons of absent fathers had more masculine faces. He speculates that a masculine appearance and hence high testosterone levels may be a response to help overcome the disadvantage of being without a father, enabling sons to push their interests more aggressively to make their way in society.69. __________. Another potential influence on a woman's sexual behaviour is the quality of relationships she has with men as she grows up. Professor Bruce Ellis, of the University of Arizona, found in a long- term study of girls in the United States and New Zealand that daughters whose fathers were absent tended to reach puberty earlier, and were much more likely to become pregnant as a teenager than daughters with two resident parents. He found that this early sexual activity was more pronounced in girls who were deprived of a father from early in life. Even among the girls who lived with their fathers, those who had a closer father-daughter relationship delayed sexual relationships for longer. Prof Ellis suggests that the quality of a girl's relationship with her father, especially in the first five or so years of life, becomes internalised and sets the stage for her later sexual behaviour. Could the same be true of the physical effects that we see? "The key research agenda for the future will be to assess facial masculinity and attractiveness in girls early in life," Prof Ellis says, "and then to determine whether girls who experience father absence and poor mother-father relationships change over time to become more masculinising and less attractive."70. __________. The St Andrews University study rated daughters of warring couples as the least attractive and they were deemed less healthy looking than those of separated parents, perhaps as a result of ongoing family tension. But as Dr Boothroyd says: "It's nothing new to suggest that long-term psycho-social stress is not good for children."A. Another possibility is that hormones are responsible for both marital strife and masculinity in daughters: High parental testosterone levels or sensitivity could increase the chances of marital problems and desertion by the father, and if passed on to daughters could lead to a more masculine appearance.B. The study, published in Proceedings of the Royal Society, found that father absence and parental marital strife were associated with less attractive, more masculine faces in daughters.The researchers also found that these women tended to have less feminine body shapes and more body fat than women whose parents had a good, stable relationship.C. For all the disadvantages to girls of being without a father when they are growing up, they can take some comfort in the fact that they are likely to be more attractive than those whose parents stayed together in spite of marital strife.D. "If you're more masculine it's going to be harder to get a good quality mate, in terms of what you've got to bargain with," says Dr Boothroyd. "This could be driving certain elements of why women who grew up without fathers are less likely to be in long-term relationships."E. Girls who enter puberty later generally had fathers who were active participants in care-giving; had fathers who were supportive to the girls' mothers; and had positive relationships with their mothers. But it's the fathers' involvement, rather than the mothers', which seems to be paramount to the age of the girls' development.F. Dr Waynforth doesn't think that women raised without a father around would be at a reproductive disadvantage. "While they may through higher facial masculinity be rated a bit lower for physical attractiveness, they should be more driven to seek sex and more sexual partners," he says, "assuming testosterone affects female sexual behaviour in the same ways that it seems to affect male sexual behaviour."

填空题 Over breakfast Florian loan Wells, a 33-year-old aerospace engineer, and Craig Parsley, a 25-year-old environmental technician, discussed their plan for that day, May 14, 1983. They were going to climb one of Mt. Garfield' s western peaks, a minor if perilous crag in the Cascade Range east of Seattle. For them it was a routine climb, and neither had bothered to pinpoint for his wife where he would be. When they reached the mountain, the sky was cloudy and the temperature was 34 degree Fahrenheit. Conditions weren't ideal, but the men decided to continue on, hoping the weather would hold. It was 8 a.m. when they started for the 4896-foot-high summit.66. ______ All morning, they took turns leading. The pitch of the granite face averaged 70 degrees, about the steepness of a ladder placed against a house. It began to rain — a few drops at first, then a steady downpour. Florian was troubled: if the rain continued, they would have to turn back. It was 11 a.m., and they were about halfway up the face. 67. ______ Thrown off balance, Florian screamed, "Watch out!" Then he fell backward, head down, scraping and bumping against the rock. Instinctively he rotated, feet down, fumbling for something to grab. Craig saw his friend slip back and heard his yell. As Florian dropped twice the length of the rope between the two of them, about 120 feet, Craig braced himself. "I'm going to have to absorb one whale of a pull when I stop him," he thought. Then the rope tightened with a born-jarring wrench and yanked Craig off the rock face. Hurtling forward on his belly, Craig tried to stop himself with his hands, tearing skin from his palms.68. ______ Like Florian, Craig turned his body to a feet-down position. He slammed into a small ledge, which spun him around like a rag doll. Crashing forward headfirst again, he clutched frantically at anything that interrupted the smooth rock face, pulling several fingers out of their sockets. Florian, too, was desperately trying to find a way to stop his fall. He caught a narrow ledge with his right foot, but the leg bent uselessly beneath him. Looking beyond his dangling feet, he saw a 500-foot vertical drop ending in a small pool. Florian closed his eyes and. waited for the inevitable yank, when Craig's plunging body would pull him from his position to go screaming into the abyss. 69. ______ Craig has grabbed a finger-size twig sticking out of the rock face. Hanging by his right arm, he felt a wave of pain sweep over him and realized that his shoulder was broken. Craig grabbed a piton with his left hand, set it in a moss-filled crack and drove it to the jilt with his hammer. Meanwhile, Florian had hauled himself onto his ledge. Wedging himself in place with one arm and leg, he fumbled some jam huts from his harness and secured them in small cracks. The two climbers were safe, temporarily. Yet they clung to the lip of a sheer drop, a 50-story fall to certain death. 70. ______ Craig slid down the ripe to Florian, and it was then Florian found out that his partner's injuries were worse than his own. Craig's shoulder was broken and his right wrist and both ankles were fractured. The situation looked bleak. It was raining and temperatures would fall below freezing that night. Their wives did not expect them back until much later and did not know their location. If tile climbers stayed on the rock face, they would die from exposure or' blood loss. "I'm going down," Florian told Craig. "When I get to the truck, 1' 11 use the CB radio to call for help." A. But the lethal tug never came. Instead there was silence followed by an anguished yell. Looking up, he saw Craig dangling by one arm from a small ledge. B. Craig took the lead. Seeking out tiny cracks and crevices in which to wedge his fingers and the toes of his climbing shoes, he worked his way 165 feet up the length of his rope. Then he planted some pitons -- large, flat nails with eyelets — in a crack, secured his rope through them and told Florian to start climbing. C. Florian fastened his rope around his waist, and Craig lowered him the length of the rope. But to reach the bottom of the cliff, Florian had to make six long rappels. With one end of his rope belayed through a piton and the other wrapped around his body, he pushed off. D. Florian was leading, clinging to the wall 60 feet above Craig. In a crack at about shoulder height he planted a NO. 2 jam nut. Properly anchored, the nut holds 500 pounds, but Florian didn' t like the look of the crack it was in. He bent down to plant a larger NO. 3 in, a better crack near his feet. As he did, he heard a "pop." The NO. 2 nut had torn loose. E. Florian now felt a pain in his right leg. A jagged bone poked through his shoe. "My leg is broken," he cried to Craig. F. Now Florian was again sliding down the rock, barely touching it, at a terrifying speed. "I wonder if it's going to hurt to die," he thought.

填空题What'sthebasicdifferencebetweenEnglishfootballandAmericanfootball?

填空题 　　Space travel has never been billed {{U}}(31) {{/U}} a first-class affair, but back in 1939 it was deemed downright uncivilized in the February 20, 1939, issue of TIME. The article summarized the British Interplanetary Society's prediction of {{U}}(32) {{/U}} astronauts would forgo on their {{U}}(33) {{/U}} to the moon. Topping the list: smoking and water for washing-and there would be just enough coffee to keep the navigators from" {{U}}(34) {{/U}} asleep over their interminable calculations."　　By 1951 space {{U}}(35) {{/U}} plans had become more grandiose. Famed rocket scientist Wernher von Braun predicted {{U}}(36) {{/U}} a successful Mars {{U}}(37) {{/U}} could be accomplished with {{U}}(38) {{/U}} few as 46 rockets in a round trip that would take three years, in a later {{U}}(39) {{/U}} with TIME, yon Braun affirmed. "Man belongs {{U}}(40) {{/U}} he wants to go-and he'll do plenty well when he gets there."　　With the {{U}}(41) {{/U}} War heating up, the space {{U}}(42) {{/U}} became an historic rivalry between United States and the Soviets. TIME heralded the {{U}}(43) {{/U}} seven Mercury astronauts as men of destiny. Soviet astronaut Yuri Gagarin {{U}}(44) {{/U}} TIME's cover {{U}}(45) {{/U}} he became the first human in space on April 12, 1961, but the article {{U}}(46) {{/U}} described the event in heroic terms also lamented the U. S. S.R. triumph as an American propaganda defeat. {{U}}(47) {{/U}} than a year later when John Glenn's flight put America back in the space race, TIME lauded Friendship 7's success as a triumph for the entire free world.　　In 1969 TiME covered the culmination of the Apollo program {{U}}(48) {{/U}} a special package, "To the Moon," calling the {{U}}(49) {{/U}} flight "the most momentous journey since 1492." The next week's issue featured a cover story celebrating Neil Armstrong's "giant leap for mankind," asserting that the success of the mission was "a shining reaffirmation of the optimistic premise that {{U}}(50) {{/U}} man imagines he can bring to pass."

填空题implies that increased payment for less work would destroy the scheme?

填空题·has won the national award?

填空题 Psychologists take contrastive views of how external rewards, from {{U}}(31) {{/U}} praise to cold cash, affect motivation and creativity. Behaviorists, {{U}}(32) {{/U}} research the relation {{U}}(33) {{/U}} actions and their consequences argue that rewards can improve performance at work and school. Cognitive researchers, who study various aspects of mental life, maintain {{U}}(34) {{/U}} rewards often destroy creativity {{U}}(35) {{/U}} encouraging dependence {{U}}(36) {{/U}} approval and gifts from others. The latter view has gained many supporters, especially {{U}}(37) {{/U}} educators. But the careful use of small monetary rewards sparks {{U}}(38) {{/U}} in grade-school children, suggesting {{U}}(39) {{/U}} properly presented inducements indeed aid inventiveness, {{U}}(40) {{/U}} to a study in the June Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. "If kids know they're working for a {{U}}(41) {{/U}} and can focus {{U}}(42) {{/U}} a relatively challenging task, they show the most creativity", says Robert Eisenberger of the University of Delaware in Newark. "But it's easy to kill creativity by giving rewards for {{U}}(43) {{/U}} performance or creating too {{U}}(44) {{/U}} anticipation for rewards." A teacher {{U}}(45) {{/U}} continually draws attention to rewards or who hands {{U}}(46) {{/U}} high grades for ordinary achievement ends up {{U}}(47) {{/U}} discouraged students, Eisenberger holds. {{U}} (48) {{/U}} an example of the latter point, he notes growing efforts at major universities to tighten grading standards and restore failing {{U}}(49) {{/U}}. In earlier grades, the use of so-called token economies, in {{U}}(50) {{/U}} students handle challenging problems and receive performance-based points toward valued rewards, shows promise in raising effort and creativity, the Delaware psychologist claims.

填空题 Married mothers who also hold jobs, despite having to juggle career and home, enjoy{{U}} (31) {{/U}}health than their underemployed or childless peers. Data from a long-term study launched in the UK in 1946 shows that such working moms are the{{U}} (32) {{/U}}likely to be obese{{U}} (33) {{/U}}middle age and the most likely to report generally good health. And this result cannot be explained simply{{U}} (34) {{/U}}the healthiest women take on the most. Epidemiologist Anne McMunn of University College London drew more than 1,400 female{{U}} (35) {{/U}} from a study of 5,362 Britons born during the first week of March 1946. Followed{{U}} (36) {{/U}}their lives, including face-to-face interviews at{{U}} (37) {{/U}}26, 36, 46 and 53, the women provided data from both their own views of their health as well as{{U}} (38) {{/U}}measures such as body-mass index. By assessing both{{U}} (39) {{/U}}and objective information, the researchers hoped to discover{{U}} (40) {{/U}} working moms undertook such multitasking because of their inherent{{U}} (41) {{/U}}or achieved good health because of their multiple roles. Of the 555 working mothers, only 23 percent proved obese{{U}} (42) {{/U}}age 53, compared to 38 percent of the 151 full-time homemakers,{{U}} (43) {{/U}}also averaged the highest body-mass index of all six categories of{{U}} (44) {{/U}}, rounded out by single working mothers, the childless, multiply-married working moms and intermittently-employed married mothers. In{{U}} (45) {{/U}}, full-time homemakers reported the most poor health, {{U}}(46) {{/U}}by single mothers and the childless. Of course, the data do not show{{U}} (47) {{/U}}working moms are healthiest but the women's view of their own health at 26 did not correlate{{U}} (48) {{/U}}whether they undertook{{U}} (49) {{/U}}careers and families, seeming to discount a definitive role for good health in determining a woman's choices. Working correlated with low body mass{{U}} (50) {{/U}}all groups, including single moms and childless women.

填空题Parent-students cherish their chance to study in school again.

填空题The press is constantly reminding us that the dramatic increase in the age of our population over the next 30 or so years will cause national healthcare systems to collapse, economies to crumple under the strain of pension demands and disintegrating families to buckle under increasing care commitments. Yet research at Oxford is beginning to expose some of the widespread myths that underlie this rhetoric. Demographic ageing is undoubtedly a reality. Life expectancy in developed countries has risen continuously over the past century, increasing the percentage of those over the age of 60 relative to those under the age of 15. By 2030 half the population of Western Europe will be over the age of 50, with a predicted average life expectancy of a further 40 years. By then, a quarter of the population will be over 65 and by 2050 the UK's current number of 10,000 centenarians are predicted to have reached quarter of a million. Some demographers have even suggested that half of all baby girls born in the West today will live to see the next century. (66) Indeed, if this could be achieved throughout the world, it would surely count as the success of civilization, for then we would also have conquered the killers of poverty, disease, famine and war. Decreasing mortality rates, increasing longevity and declining fertility mean smaller percentages of young people within populations. Over the past 20 years life expectancy at birth in the UK has risen by four years for men (to 75) and three years for women (to 80). Meanwhile fertility rates across Europe have declined more or less continuously over the past 40 years and remain well below the levels required for European populations to be able to replace themselves without substantive immigration. But again, rather than seeing this as a doom and gloom scenario, we need to explore the positive aspects of these demographics. The next 50 years should provide us with an opportunity to enjoy the many advantages of a society with a mature population structure. (67) The first of these is the current political rhetoric which claims that health services across the Western world are collapsing under the strain of demographic ageing. (68) The second myth is the view that the ratio of workers to non-workers will become so acute that Western economies will collapse, compounded by a massive growth in pension debt. While there are undoubted concerns over current pension shortfalls, it is also clear that working fives will themselves change over the next few decades, with a predicted increase in flexible and part-time work and the probable extension of working life until the age of 70. Indeed, we have to recognize that we cannot expect to retire at the age of 50 and then be able to support ourselves for another 40 or so years. Neither a solid pension scheme nor savings can carry people that long. (69) A further myth is that we will all live in loose, multigenerational families, experiencing increased emotional distancing from our kin. Evidence from a variety of studies across the developed world suggests that, if anything, the modern family is actually becoming more close-knit. Work carried out by the Oxford Institute in Scandinavia and in a Pan-European Family Care Study, for example, shows that despite the influence of the welfare state, over the past 10 years, people have come to value family relationships more than previously. (70) In the developed world, therefore, we can see actual benefits from population ageing: a better balance between age groups, mature and less volatile societies, with an emphasis on age integration. The issues will be very different in other parts of the world. Herein lies another myth: that the less developed world will escape from demographic ageing. Instead, the massive increase in the age of populations facing these countries-predicted to be up to one billion older people within 30 years—is potentially devastating. The problem is not only that demographic ageing is occurring at a far greater pace than we have seen in Western nations, but also that few if any developing countries have the economic development and infrastructure necessary to provide widespread public pensions and healthcare to these growing elderly populations. As a result, older people are among the poorest in every developing country. They have the lowest levels of income, education and literacy, they lack savings and assets, have only limited access to work, and even in times of crisis are usually the last to be cared for under emergency aid programmes. Perhaps of most concern is healthcare, for as we conquer acute diseases, we are going to see a rapid increase in levels of chronic illness and disability, but no long-term care programmes or facilities to tackle this. A. Since it is likely that a longer active working life will coincide with a predicted labor shortage resulting from a lack of younger workers, we need to provide the opportunities and training to encourage older men and women to remain economically productive. Our studies show that there are benefits from having an age-integrated workforce. It is another myth that older workers are less productive than younger ones. In fact, the combined energy of younger workers with the experience of older ones can lead to increased productivity—something from which young and old alike will benefit. B. In 2001, in recognition of the significance of these demographic changes and the global challenges and opportunities that will accompany them, the Oxford Institute of Ageing was established at the University. It is made up of researchers in demography, sociology, economics, social anthropology, philosophy and psychology, with links to other specialists in medicine, biology, law and policy in research units across the University. This cross-disciplinary approach has made it possible to challenge some of the most pervasive myths about ageing societies. C. As Institute healthcare ethicist Kenneth Howse points out, family obligations towards older relatives may change over the next 20 years, but current indications are that families are retaining a strong responsibility to care. Furthermore, as societies age, the contributory role of older people as grandparents becomes more important. Work by Institute researchers on another European Union study on multi-generational families has highlighted the role that grandparents play by freeing up the responsibilities of the younger reproductive population. D. It is clear that the changing demographic landscape poses challenges for the future. The necessity now is to develop appropriate economic, social and political structures to take advantage of the opportunities that mature societies will bring, while ensuring that there are appropriate safety nets for those left vulnerable within these populations—which will include both young and old alike. E. Rather than fearing such a future, however, we should see this trend as a great success. It must undoubtedly be a major achievement of civilization that most individuals within a society can expect to enjoy a long and healthy lifespan. F. George Leeson, a demographer at the Institute, points out that while a number of cross-national studies have considered the determinants of spiraling healthcare costs, only one has found the explanatory factor to be the proportion of the population aged 65 and over. Rather, it is growth in income, lifestyle characteristics and environmental factors such as technology and drugs that are driving up healthcare costs. In addition, the costs are shifting between population groups. The key here, he adds, is to develop sufficiently flexible health service structures to shift not only economic resources but also personnel.

填空题The life of Albert Einstein is a model in many ways (31) both natural and political scientists. First of all, he always employed the scientific method of (32) truth from facts. He firmly believed (33) he put it, that "there is nothing incomprehensible (34) the universe", and through painstaking work explained many of the phenomena thought to be "incomprehensible" in his day. Einstein was also never afraid to (35) mistakes when facts (36) his theories wrong. Second, Einstein's contributions showed the great importance of theoretical work to scientific effort. (37) he himself rarely worked in laboratories, the concepts he developed led (38) many of the scientific advances (39) have shaped modem technology. Third, Einstein believed very deeply that scientists must (40) a moral and social consciousness. (41) this way, he provided inspiration for a whole generation of scientists who became active in the communist movement. Einstein is often portrayed in bourgeois writings (42) a "Genius" whose theories are (43) complicated that no one (44) a few best scientists can understand them. But he (45) rejected the efforts to (46) him in a position far (47) other people. He was well-known for his (48) manner and often stressed to in terviews that his accomplishments would certainly have been achieved by others had he never lived. Actually, Einstein's (49) of relativity and his other scientific works are not that hard to understand with a little study. But beyond learning Einstein's theories, his overall attitude (50) science as a tool to liberate humanity is something from which everyone can and should learn.

填空题Psychologists take contrastive views of how external rewards, from (32) praise to cold cash, affect motivation and creativity. Behaviorists, (33) research the relation (34) actions and their consequences argue that rewards can improve performance at work and school. Cognitive researchers, who study various aspects of mental life, maintain (35) rewards often destroy creativity (36) encouraging dependence (37) approval and gifts from others. The latter view has gained many supporters, especially (38) educators. But the careful use of small monetary rewards sparks (39) in grade-school children, suggesting (40) properly presented inducements indeed aid inventiveness, (41) to a study in the June Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. "If kids know they're working for a (42) and can focus (43) a relatively challenging task, they show the most creativity", says Robert Eisenberger of the University of Delaware in Newark. "But it's easy to kill creativity by giving rewards for (44) performance or creating too (45) anticipation for rewards." A teacher (46) continually draws attention to rewards or who hands (47) high grades for ordinary achievement ends up (48) discouraged students, Eisenberger holds. (49) an example of the latter point, he notes growing efforts at major universities to tighten grading standards and restore failing (50) . In earlier grades, the use of so-called token economies, in (51) students handle challenging problems and receive performance-based points toward valued rewards, shows promise in raising effort and creativity, the Delaware psychologist claims.

填空题Text 1 Opinion polls are now beginning to show a reluctant consensus that, whoever is to blame and whatever happens from now on, high unemployment is probably here to stay. This means we shall have to find ways of sharing the available employment more widely. But we need to go further. We must ask some fundamental questions about the future of work. Should we continue to treat employment as the norm? Should we not rather encourage many other ways for self-respecting people to work? Should we not create conditions in which many of us can work for ourselves, rather than for an employer? Should we not aim to revive the household and the neighborhood, as well as the factory and the office, as centers of production and work? The industrial age has been the only period of human history in which most people's work has taken the form of jobs. The industrial age may now be coming to an end, and some of the changes in work patterns which it brought may have to be reversed. This seems a daunting thought. But, in fact, it could offer the prospect of a better future for work. Universal employment, as its history shows, has not meant economic freedom. Employment became widespread when the enclosures of the 17th and 18th centuries made many people dependent on paid work by depriving them of the use of the land, and thus of the means to provide a living for themselves. Then the factory system destroyed the cottage industries and removed work from people's homes. Later, as transport improved, first by rail and then by road, people commuted longer distances to their places of employment until, eventually, many people's work lost all connection with their home lives and the places in which they lived. Meanwhile, employment put women at a disadvantage. In pre-industrial times, men and women had shared the productive work of the household and village community. Now it became customary for the husband to go out to paid employment, leaving the unpaid work of the home and family to his wife. Tax and benefit regularities still assume this norm today, and restrict more flexible sharing of work roles between the sexes. It was not only women whose work status suffered. As employment became the dominant form of work, young people and old people were excluded — a problem now, as more teenagers become frustrated at school and more retired people want to live active lives. All this may not have to change, the time has certainly come to switch some effort and resources away from the Utopian goal of creating jobs for all, to the urgent practical task of helping many people to manage without full-time jobs.

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填空题A = Nathaniel Hawthorne B = Galph Waldo Emerson C = Henry David Thoreau D = Herman Melville Who... ※ kept a journal throughout his life. (71) ※ had Nathaniel Hawthorne as his neighbor. (72) ※ met Wordsworth when on a tour of Europe. (73) ※ wrote as a moralist. (74) ※ was born where many of the literary figures (75) of the 19th century lived. ※ completed a novelette just before his death. (76) ※ was concerned with the abolition of slavery. (77) ※ worked as a customs inspector in New York. (78) ※ his "Dr. Heidegger's Experiment" is a study of (79) right and wrong in human Conduct. ※ thought a minimum of material kept men (80) closer to nature. Nathaniel Hawthorne Hawthorne was imbued with an inquiring imagination, an intensely meditative mind, and an unceasing interest in the ambiguity of man's being. He was an anatomist of "the interior of the heart," conscious of the loneliness of man in the universe, of the darkness that enshrouds all joy,and of the need of man to look into his own soul. In both his novels and his short stories, Hawthorne wrote essentially as a moralist. He was interested in what happened in the minds and hearts of men and women when they knew they had done wrong. He focused his examination on the moral and psychological consequences that manifested themselves in human beings as a result of their vanity, their hatred, their egotism, their ambition, and their pride. He was intrigued by the way they felt and the way they acted when they knew they had done wrong. In "Dr. Heidegger's Experiment," Hawthorne illustrates several sides of his writing: his disenchanted view of human nature, his use of symbolism, and his interest in the supernatural. In addition, the story treats one of the new nineteenth century ideas that concerned Hawthorne: scientific experiment. The story itself is a stimulating and rewarding study of right and wrong in human conduct. Ralph Waldo Emerson Emerson was born in Boston, where his father was a Unitarian clergyman, as six generations of Emersons had been before him. While a student at Harvard he began keeping journals—records of his thoughts — a practice he continued throughout his life. He later drew on the journals for material for his essays and poetry. After graduating, he ran a school for young ladies for a time, but eventually he returned to Harvard to study for the ministry. Following his second graduation he served as pastor of a church for a few years, but finally resigned his position because he had doubts about the beliefs of the church. In 1832 Emerson toured Europe, meeting such major English poets as Wordsworth, Carlyle, and Coleridge. Through his acquaintance with these men he became closely involved with German idealism and Transcendentalism. Returning to Boston, he devoted most of his time to lecturing. An address that he delivered at the Harvard Divinity School in 1838 in which he attacked formal religion and defended intuitive spiritual experience aroused such an adverse reaction that he was not invited back to Harvard for 30 years. Emerson was concerned with many reform movements, among them the abolition of slavery. In 1840 he joined with other Transcendentalists in an attempt to spread ideas through publication of a small magazine named The Dial. Henry David Thoreau Thoreau(1817—1862) was born in Concord, a village near Boston where many of the literary figures of the 19th century, including Emerson, lived. After graduating from Harvard and teaching school for a few years, Thoreau went to live with Emerson both to study with him and to work as a handyman. Later in his life he traveled a little, but in general Thoreau stayed near his home. He had a strong attachment to his family, and he preferred to travel vicariously through books. The trips he did take were often camping trips, for he enjoyed the outdoors and was skillful woodsman. Through his writing Thoreau wanted to illustrate that the pursuit of material things had no value. He desired a life of contemplation, of being in harmony with nature, and of acting on his own principles. His study of Eastern religions contributed to his desire for a simple life, while his reaction against such Yankee pragmatists as Benjamin Franklin is also apparent. Both Franklin and Thoreau advocated thrift and hard work, but while Franklin expected the frugal to get richer and richer, Thoreau thought physical labor and a minimum of material goods made men more sensitive and kept them closer to nature. Herman Melville In 1841 Melville went to the South Seas on a whaling ship, where he gained the information about whaling that he later used in Moby-Dick. After jumping ship in teh Marquesa Islands, he and a friend were captured by some of the islanders. They lived with these people for a month, then escaped on an Australian ship, deserting the latter in Tahiti, where they worked for a time as field laborers. Melville finally returned to the United States as a seaman on an American ship. These experiences provided material for his first and most popular books, which are primarily adventure stories. In 1850 Melville moved to a farm in Massachusetts where Nathaniel Hawthorne was his neighbor. The latter soon became a confidant with whom Melville often discussed his work. As he changed from writing adventure stories to philosophical and symbolic works, Melville's popularity began to wane. From the writing of complex novels such as Mob? Dick, Pierre and The Confidence Man, Melville turned to writing poetry. But unable to support himself by his writing, he secured a political appointment as a customs inspector ill New York. When he retired from that job, after 20 years, he wrote the novelette, Billy Budd, completing it just before his death, it was not until the i920s that his work again came to the attention of literary scholars anti the public. His reputation now rests not only on his rich, poetic prose, but also on his philosophy and his effective use of symbolism.

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填空题Questions 1--3 Choose the best answer.