业务题综合写作 阅读关于新物种引入所带来的负面影响：破坏生态平衡，破坏当地资源，破坏当地经济1．imported species may do harm to local ecosystem 2．imported species destroy the useful aspects of local species. 3. imported species adds the local economic burden 听力分别反驳三个观点，对得很工整：1。农作物引入是一个好事情 2。对于资源的破坏要取决于各地的情况，一种叫cano tode的动物（reading中的例子）引入以后帮助了Florida消除害虫 3。对于经济的破坏也要看不同经济，一种叫mes-的植物（也是reading中的例子），成为了人们喂养牲畜的饲料和生火的燃料1. imported species doesn’t always do harm to local ecosystem，以agriculture为例2．imported species doesn’t always destroy the useful aspects of local species, it depends on local circumstance.以Florida引进的toad为例。3. imported species adds the local economic burden, it depends on local circumstance.以Mesquite imported into Africa为例，food and firewood。

业务题综合写作：reaing 埃及金字塔用concrete 建造的，不是用天然石头1埃及人用concrete 做其他的东西，如一种花瓶长细脖子不可能用天然石头雕刻。2显微镜下发现bubbles in builing material 3 moisture inside champers of the pyramids are released from concrete

业务题Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? The best way for parents to teach their children about responsibility is to have them care for an animal.

业务题动物保护自己的两种方式：装得对侵犯者很危险；直接装死。以蛇为例：狐狸来冒犯蛇，蛇就装得比实际危险，吓跑了狐狸；遇到其他的某些入侵者，蛇可能装死，入侵者因此失去兴趣。

业务题When famous people such as actors,athletes and rock stars give their opinions,many people listen.Do you think we should pay attention to these opinions?Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

业务题Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?A zoo has no useful purpose.Use specific reasons and examples to explain your answer.

业务题Integrated Writing 　　reading:动物园的角色发生变化，从只供娱乐变成了保护濒危动物，研究动物行为，对公众进行动物教育的场所。 　　Lecture：动物园的角色没发生变化 　　1）动物园濒危动物很少，也没有保护濒危动物的良好环境 　　2）动物园的动物都不怎么动了，都等着喂食的，不会hunting了，不是研究者想观察的行为 　　3）动物教育不需要再动物园里进行，人们都可以自己在家里看碟，看记录片来了解动物的。

EnergyfromNaturalGas1.Muchoftheworldgetsitsenergyfromfossilfuelsources,includingcoal,oil,andnaturalgas,allofwhichwerecreatedmillionsofyearsago.Theprocessbeganwithdeadplantandanimalmatterthatcollectedandovertimewasburieddeepwithintheearth.There,exposedtoextremepressureandtemperatures,thecarbon-basedmaterialunderwentvariouschemicalandphysicalchanges.Someofitbecamecoal,someoil,andsomenaturalgas,dependingontheexactconditionsitwassubjectedto.2.Naturalgasisbothinvisibleandodorless.Duringthefirstcenturyofthefossilfuelera,itwasdisregardedasaworthlessbyproductofcoalandoil.However,peoplelaterdiscoveredthatitcouldalsobeausefulsourceofenergy,andtheysetabouttryingtorealizeitspotential.Itsusebegantogrowinthetwentiethcenturyandhasincreasedrapidlywithinthelast40years.Nowadays,naturalgasisemployedallovertheworldtoheathomes,generateelectricity,powerfactories,andevenfuelvehicles.3.Becauseitwascreatedthroughthesameprocessasotherfossilfuels,naturalgascanoftenberetrievedfromoilfields,somethingknownasanassociatedsource.Coalbedshavesimilarlybeenknowntoyieldnaturalgas.Inaddition,thereareisolateddepositscontainingonlygasthatarereferredtoasnon-associatedsources.Toaccessasubterraneannaturalgaspocket,aholeisdrilleddownintoit,justasinoilextraction.However,duetothegas'slightness,itwillrisetothesurfaceonitsowninsteadofhavingtobepumpedout.4.Thecompoundweknowasnaturalgasisactuallyacompositeofseveraldifferentsubstances,theprimaryonebeingmethanegas.Eachdeposithasauniquemakeup,butothercommoncomponentsofnaturalgasincludepropane,butane,andsulfur.Borrowingtermsusedinthedescriptionofoil,naturalgaswithahighsulfurcontentiscalled"sour"whilethatwithalowcontentisreferredtoas"sweet"Regardlessoftheexactcomposition,naturalgasmustberefinedtoremoveitsimpurities;whenreadyforuse,itisnearlypuremethane.5.Naturalgasoffersmanyadvantagesasafuelsource,thefirstandmostimportantbeingthatitisextremelycleanburning.Whileoilandcoalbothhavecomplexmolecularstructures,methane'sissimple:onecarbonatomsurroundedbyfouratomsofhydrogen.Thelackofexcessparticlestranslatesintofewerwastebyproductsduringcombustion.Forexample,allfossilfuelsproducecarbondioxidewhenburned,butnaturalgasreleasessubstantiallylesscarbondioxidethanotherfuels.Giventhemajorroleofcarbondioxideintheaccelerationofglobalwarming,thisisanimportantattribute.Inaddition,naturalgasemitsfarlessnitrogenandsulfur,whicharekeycontributorstothesmogthatpollutestheairinmetropolitanareas,aswellasacidrain.6.Thebenefitsofnaturalgasextendfarbeyonditscleanliness.Sinceitcontainsfewerwasteparticles,itsenergycanbeacquiredwithmuchmoreefficiencythanthatoftheotherfossilfuels,meaningaloweroverallcostfortheconsumer.Anotheradvantageisthatnaturalgasistransportedviaundergroundpipelinesinsteadofbyshipsandtrucks.Finally,naturalgasisrelativelyplentifulandwidespread.GeologistshaveidentifiedextensivestoresinCanada,theUnitedStates,Russia,theMiddleEast,andAustralia,amongotherlocations.Withtheworld'soilsuppliesquicklydwindling,itisbecomingmoreimportantthanevertoutilizealternativeenergyresourcessuchasnaturalgas.7.Ofcourse,noenergyresourceisperfect,andtherearesomedrawbackstotheuseofnaturalgas.Itslowdensitymeansthatitrequireslargertanksforstoragethanoilandcoaldo,anditisimpossibletopipeitacrosstheoceans.Somepeoplehaveconcernsaboutitssafetyaswell,sinceitslackofcolorandsmellcanmakedetectingaleakdifficult.However,whenbothitspositiveandnegativecharacteristicsareweighed,itbecomesclearthatnaturalgasisperhapsthebestenergyresourceavailabletoday.

1 Although some fish appear capable of swimming at extremely high speeds, most fish, such as trout and minnows, can actually swim only about ten body lengths per second. Translated into kilometers per hour, it means that a 30-centimeter trout can swim only about 10.4 kilometers per hour. Generally speaking, the larger the fish the faster it can swim. 2 We can understand how fish swim by studying the motion of a very flexible fish such as an eel. The movement is serpentine, with undulations moving backward along the body by alternate contraction of the muscles on either side of the eel's body. While the undulations move backward, the bending of the body pushes sideways against the water, producing a reactive force that is directed forward at an angle. The movement has two components: thrust and lateral force. Thrust is used to propel the fish forward, and lateral force tends to make the fish's head deviate from the course in the same direction as the tail. This side-to-side head movement is very obvious in a swimming eel, but fish with large, rigid heads have enough surface resistance to minimize the lateral movement.

CLOTHING AND COSTUME 1 The ancient Greeks and the Chinese believed that we first clothed our bodies for some physical reason, such as protecting ourselves from the elements. Ethnologists and psychologists have invoked psychological reasons: modesty, taboo, magical influence, or the desire to please. Anthropological research indicates that the function of the earliest clothing was to carry objects. Our hunting-gathering ancestors had to travel great distances to obtain food. For the male hunters, carrying was much easier if they were wearing simple belts or animal skins from which they could hang weapons and tools. For the female gatherers, more elaborate carrying devices were necessary. Women had to transport collected food back to the settlement and also had to carry babies, so they required bags or slings. 2 Another function of early clothing--providing comfort and protection--probably developed at the same time as utility. As human beings multiplied and spread out from the warm lands in which they evolved, they covered their bodies more and more to maintain body warmth. Today, we still dress to maintain warmth and to carry objects in our clothes. And like our hunting-gathering ancestors, most men still carry things on their person, as if they still needed to keep their arms free for hunting, while women tend to have a separate bag for carrying, as if they were still food-gatherers. But these two functions of clothing are only two of many uses to which we put the garments that we wear today. 3 There is a clear distinction between attire that constitutes "clothing" and attire that is more aptly termed "costume." We might say that clothing has to do with covering the body, and costume concerns the choice of a particular form of garment for a particular purpose. Clothing depends primarily on such physical conditions as climate, health, and textile, while costume reflects social factors such as personal status, religious beliefs, aesthetics, and the wish to be distinguished from or to emulate others. 4 Even in early human history, costume fulfilled a function beyond that of simple utility. Costume helped to impose authority or inspire fear. A chieftain"s costume embodied attributes expressing his power, while a warrior"s costume enhanced his physical superiority and suggested he was superhuman. Costume often had a magical significance such as investing humans with the attributes of other creatures through the addition of ornaments to identify the wearer with animals, gods, or heroes. In more recent times, professional or administrative costume is designed to distinguish the wearer and to express personal or delegated authority. Costume communicates the status of the wearer, and with very few exceptions, the aim is to display as high a status as possible. Costume denotes power, and since power is often equated with wealth, costume has come to be an expression of social class and material prosperity. 5 A uniform is a type of costume that serves the important function of displaying membership in a group: school, sports team, occupation, or armed force. Military uniform denotes rank and is intended not only to express group membership but also to protect the body and to intimidate. A soldier"s uniform says, "I am part of a powerful machine, and when you deal with me, you deal with my whole organization." Uniforms are immediate beacons of power and authority. If a person needs to display power--a police officer, for example--then the body can be virtually transformed. Height can be exaggerated with protective headgear, thick clothing can make the body look broader and stronger, and boots can enhance the power of the legs. Uniforms also convey low social status; at the bottom of the scale, the uniform of the prisoner denotes membership in the society of convicted criminals. Religious costume signifies spiritual or superhuman authority and possesses a significance that identifies the wearer with a belief or god. A successful clergy has always displayed impressive vestments of one kind or another that clearly demonstrate the religious leader"s dominant status.

Reading2"Civilization"Between4000and3000B.C.,significanttechnologicaldevelopmentsbegantotransformtheNeolithictowns.Theinventionofwritingenabledrecordstobekept,andtheuseofmetalsmarkedanewlevelofhumancontrolovertheenvironmentanditsresources.Alreadybefore4000B.C.,craftspeoplehaddiscoveredthatmetal-bearingrockscouldbeheatedtoliquefymetals,whichcouldthenbecastinmoldstoproducetoolsandweaponsthatweremoreusefulthanstoneinstruments.Althoughcopperwasthefirstmetaltobeutilizedinproducingtools,after4000B.C.craftspeopleinwesternAsiadiscoveredthatacombinationofcopperandtinproducedbronze,amuchharderandmoredurablemetalthancopper.ItswidespreadusehasledhistorianstospeakofaBronzeAgefromaround3000to1200B.C.,whenbronzewasincreasinglyreplacedbyiron.→Atfirst,Neolithicsettlementswerehardlymorethanvillages.Butastheirinhabitantsmasteredtheartoffarming,theygraduallybegantogivebirthtomorecomplexhumansocieties.Aswealthincreased,suchsocietiesbegantodeveloparmiesandtobuildwalledcities.BythebeginningoftheBronzeAge,theconcentrationoflargernumbersofpeopleintherivervalleysofMesopotamiaandEgyptwasleadingtoawholenewpatternforhumanlife.→Aswehaveseen,earlyhumanbeingsformedsmallgroupsthatdevelopedasimpleculturethatenabledthemtosurvive.Ashumansocietiesgrewanddevelopedgreatercomplexity,anewformofhumanexistence—calledcivilization-cameintobeing.Acivilizationisacomplexcultureinwhichlargenumbersofhumanbeingsshareanumberofcommonelements.{{U}}Historianshave{{/U}}{{U}}identifiedanumberofbasccharacterstcsofcivilization,mostofwhichare{{/U}}{{U}}evidentintheMesopotamianandEgyptiancivilizations.{{/U}}Theseinclude(1)anurbanrevolution;citiesbecamethefocalpointsforpolitical,economic,social,cultural,andreligiousdevelopment;(2)adistinctreligiousstructure;thegodsweredeemedcrucialtothecommunity'ssuccess,andprofessionalpriestlyclasses,asstewardsofthegods'property,regulatedrelationswiththegods;(3)newpoliticalandmilitarystructures;anorganizedgovernmentbureaucracyarosetomeettheadministrativedemandsofthegrowingpopulationwhilearmieswereorganizedtogainlandandpower;(4)anewsocialstructurebasedoneconomicpower;whilekingsandanupperclassofpriests,politicalleaders,andwarriorsdominated,therealsoexistedlargegroupsoffreepeople(farmers,artisans,craftspeople)andattheverybottom,socially,aclassofslaves;(5)thedevelopmentofwriting;kings,priests,merchants,andartisansusedwritingtokeeprecords;and(6)newformsofsignificantartisticandintellectualactivity,suchasmonumentalarchitecturalstructures,usuallyreligious,occu-pieda{{U}}prominent{{/U}}placeinurbanenvironments.→Whyearlycivilizationsdevelopedremainsdifficulttoexplain.SincecivilizationsdevelopedindependentlyinIndia,China,Mesopotamia,andEgypt,cangeneralcausesbeidentifiedthatwouldexplainwhyallofthesecivilizationsemerged?Anumberofpossibleexplanationsofthebeginningofcivilizationhavebeensuggested.Atheoryofchallengeandresponsemaintainsthatchallengesforcedhumanbeingstomakeeffortsthatresultedintheriseofcivilization.Somescholarshaveadheredtoamaterialexplanation.[]Materialforces,suchasthegrowthoffoodsurpluses,madepossiblethespecializationoflaboranddevelopmentoflargecommunitieswithbureaucraticorganization.ButtheareaoftheFertileCrescent,inwhichMesopotamiancivilizationemerged,wasnotnaturallyconducivetoagriculture.Abundantfoodcouldonlybeproducedwithamassivehumanefforttocarefullymanagethewater,aneffortthatcreatedtheneedfororganizationandbureaucraticcontrolandledtocivilizedcities.Somehistorianshavearguedthatnonmaterialforces,primarilyreligious,providedthesenseofunityandpurposethatmadesuchorganizedactivitiespossible.Finally,somescholarsdoubtthatwearecapableofeverdiscoveringtheactualcausesofearlycivilization.

IodineandGoiterIodineisawell-knownexampleofatracemineralwhoselackinthebodycreatesaneasilytreateddisease.Whenthethyroidglandisnotsuppliedwithsufficientiodinetomanufacturehormones,itenlargesandformsagoiterorswellingoftheneck.Atthesametimeothersymptoms,suchasfatigueandsluggishness,weightgain,coldnessofthebody,anddepression,mayoccur.IntheUnitedStatesgoiterwasfirstnotedintheGreatLakesregion,whereinthe1930s,asmanyas40percentofthepeopleinsomeareashadgoiter,duemainlytoiodine-deficientsoil.Thisscarcityhadbeencausedbyiceageglaciersmeltingandwashingtheiodineoutofthesoil.TheinhabitantsofmountainousregionsofEuropehadsufferedfromiodinedeficiencyforcenturiesforsimilarreasons.ItwasdiscoveredinthealpineregionofSwitzerlandinthenineteenthcenturythatinareasinwhichthedrinkingwatercontainedlessthan0.5microgramsofiodineperlitertherewasahighincidenceofgoiter.Incontrasttomountainousorinlandregions,areasbyoceansorinthevicinityofoceanbreezesusuallycontainenoughiodinetopreventthisaffliction.Asafairlyaccurateruleofthumb,ifamapisdrawnshowingthepartsoftheworldwherethewatersupplyisdeficientiniodineandthensuperimposedonamapshowingtheareaswheretheinhabitantssufferfromgoiter,thetwomappedareascoincide.Tounderstandhowiodinedeficiencyleadstogoiter,itisnecessarytolookattheunderlyingphysiologyofthethyroidgland.Thehumanthyroidglandistheonlyplaceinthebodywhereiodineisstored,anditrequiresadailysupplyofabout150microgramsofiodineenteringthebody.Whenfoodorwaterisdigested,theiodineitcontainsiseithertakenupbythethyroidoreliminatedfromthebodythroughthekidneysintotheurine.Whensuppliesarelow,thekidneysstilleliminateiodinefromthebodysothecapacityofthethyroidtopreserveanadequatesupplyofrawmaterialisthreatened.Thethyroidglandconsistsofthousandsofballsofcells,calledthyroidvesicles,whichencloseaspacefilledwithajellylikeproteincalledthyroglobulin.Thesecellshaveanextraordinaryabilitytotrapiodinefromthebloodstream,andtheefficiencyofthistrapcanbeincreasediftheamountofiodineinthebloodcirculationdecreases.Oncetheiodineistrappedbythethyroidvesiclesitpassesintothethyroglobulin,wheretheactualmanufactureoftwokindsofthyroidhormonestakesplace.Thehormonesarestoredhereuntiltheytravelbackthroughthethyroidvesiclestoenterthebloodstream.Thethyroidhormonesarethentakentoeverypartofthebodywheretheyinfluencetherateatwhichthechemicalprocessesofeverycellproceed.Theyhaveapervasiveeffectonthecontrolofoxygenconsumptionandheatproductionofthewholebody,andtheyareessentialtothehealthygrowthofbodyandmind.Thethyroidtriestokeepconstanttheamountofcirculatingthyroidhormoneenteringthecellsofthebody.Wheniodinesuppliesarelow,thepituitarygland,asmallpea-sizedglandatthebaseofthebrain,secretesathyroid-stimulatinghormone(TSH)thatinturnregulatesthepowerofthethyroidtotrapiodineandincreasetheoutputofthethyroid.IfthethyroidiscontinuallystimulatedbyTSH,thecellsgetlargerandeventuallythewholeglandenlargeswithanincreaseinthenumberofitscells.ThethyroidmayhavemanytemporarycriseswhereiodinesuppliesarenotadequateandwhereswellingininducedundertheinfluenceofTSH.Aseriesofsuchincidentsoveralongperiodoftimewilleventuallycausealargethyroidswellingsincetheglanddoesnotalwaysresumeitsprevioussizeandshape.Glossary:superimposed:oneimagepositionedoveranothersothatbothimagescanbeseentogetherpervasive:spreadingthroughallparts

Directions : Read the passage

TOEFLReadingPassage1TheSnake'sForkedTongue1.Oneofthemostintriguingphysicalcharacteristicsofsnakesistheirforkedtongues.Whilethistraitisalsosharedbysometypesoflizards,allsnakespeciesexhibitsplittongues,whichusuallyhaveamorepronouncedforkthanthoseoflizards.Anyobserverofsnakeshasnodoubtnoticedthattheyoftensticktheirtonguesoutoftheirmouths,flickthemupanddownintheair,andthenretractthem.Infact,duetoaslightindentationintheupperjaw,manyspeciescanprotrudetheirtongueswithoutevenopeningtheirmouths.2.Theexplanationforthisbehaviorremainedunknownforcenturies,givingrisetomanyfolksuperstitions.Forexample,theforkedtonguehasbecomesynonymouswithdeceit,fromtheideathattwoseparatetongueswouldenableacreaturetovoicetwocontrastingideasatthesametime.Anotherpopularmisconceptionisthatsnakesstingotheranimalswiththeirtongues.Recently,though,scientistsuncoveredthetruthabouttheforkedtongue,anditsactualuseismuchlesssinister.3.Snakesdiffergreatlyfromhumansonasensorylevel.Ontheonehand,theireyesightispoorandtheylackouterearssotheycannothearwithmuchvolumeorclarity,but,ontheother,somehavetheabilityto"see"andhuntinthedarkbysensingthebodyheatoftheirprey.Inaddition,snakeshaveamethodofsmellingthatispeculiarinthatitisactuallyperformedbythetongueratherthanbythenostrilsandnasalcavities,whichinfactundertakeotherfunctions,suchasbreathing.Whenasnakeflicksitstonguearoundintheair,itisactuallysnaringchemicalparticles,whichcanbethoughtofasodors.Next,thesnakebringsitstonguebackinandplacesitagainsttheroofofitsmouth,wheretherearetwosmallopeningsthatcorrespondtothetwotipsoftheforkedtongue.Thesemakeupthesnake'sJacobson'sorgan,akindofchemoreceptorthatanalyzesthechemicalodorsonthetongueandsendsthisinformationtothesnake'sbrain.4.Thistechniquefor"smelling"thesurroundingenvironmentistrulyunique,butevenmoreamazingisthereasonwhythesnake'stongueisforked.Byspreadingthetipsapartwhenthetongueisflickedout,eachsampleschemicalparticlesfromaslightlydifferentpositionintheairandbringsthembacktotheJacobson'sorgan.Theorganthendetermineswhichtipwasexposedtoalargeramountoftheparticlesinquestion,andthisdatatellsthesnakewherethesourceoftheodorcanbefound.Inotherwords,ifthetongue'srighttipcontainsmoreoftheparticles,suchasthoseofananimal'schemicalodor,thesnakeknowsthattofindtheanimalitmusttraveltotheright,nottotheleft.5.Obviously,theabilityofsnakestopursuescentsinthisfashionisveryusefulinhunting,Ithasbeenproventobequiteaccurate,allowingthemtopickupthetrailofrodentsandotherpreyeventhoughtheanimalitselfmaybeagreatdistanceaway.Similarly,iftheodorthesnakeperceivesbelongstoapredator,itisabletoadjustitscoursetosteerclearofthedanger,Anothersuggesteduseofsnakes'senseofsmellisthatitaidstheminascertainingthelocationsofcommunaldens*,wheresnakesresideingroupsduringthewintermonths.6.However,scientistswhohavestudiedthechemoreceptionprocessinsnakesbelieveitsmostvitalroleisinthedetectionofmates.Becausemostsnakesleadsolitarylivesformuchoftheyear,thecapabilityofmalestotrackdownfemalesduringthematingseasonisessentialforthesurvivalofsnakespecies.Amaledoesthisbysamplingtheairforthepheromonesofafemale.Thechemicalodorgivenoffbythefemalegivesthemalealltheinformationheneeds,includingwhethersheisofthesamespecies,whethersheisreadytomate,andinwhichdirectionsheistraveling.Withouttheolfactoryuseoftheirtongues,itwouldbemuchharderforsnakestoreproduce.den*thehomeofcertaintypesofwildanimalssuchaslionsorfoxes

Listentopartofalectureinatechnologyclass.Nowgetreadytoanswerthequestions.Youmayuseyournotestohelpyouanswer.