SwimmingMachinesTunas,mackerels,andbillfishes(marlins,sailfishes,andswordfish)swimcontinuously.Feeding,courtship,reproduction,andeven"rest"arecarriedoutwhileinconstantmotion.Asaresult,practicallyeveryaspectofthebodyformandfunctionoftheseswimming"machines"isadaptedtoenhancetherabilitytoswim.Manyoftheadaptationsofthesefishesservetoreducewaterresistance(drag).Interestinglyenough,severalofthesehydrodynamicadaptationsresemblefeaturesdesignedtoimprovetheaerodynamicsofhigh-speedwarcraft.Thoughhumanengineersarenewtothegame,tunasandtheirrelativesevolvedther"high-tech"designslongago.Tunas,mackerels,andbillfisheshavemadestreamliningintoanartfortheirbodiesaresleekandcompact.Thebodyshapesoftunas,infact,arenearlyidealfromanengineeringpointofview.Mostspecieslackscalesovermostofthebody,makingitsmoothandslippery.Theeyeslieflushwiththebodyanddonotprotrudeatall.Theyarealsocoveredwithaslick,transparentlidthatreducesdrag.Thefinsarestiff,smooth,andnarrow,qualitiesthatalsohelpcutdrag.Whennotinuse,thefinsaretuckedintospecialgroovesordepressionssothattheylieflushwiththebodyanddonotbreakupitssmoothcontours.Airplanesretracttheirlandinggearwhileinflightforthesamereason.Tunas,mackerels,andbillfisheshaveevenmoresophisticatedadaptationsthanthesetoimprovetheirhydrodynamics.Thelongbillofmarlins,sailfishes,andswordfishprobablyhelpsthemslipthroughthewater.Manysupersonicaircrafthaveasimilarneedleatthenose.Mosttunasandbillfisheshaveaseriesofkeelsandfinletnearthetail.Althoughmostoftheirscaleshavebeenlost,tunasandmackerelsretainapatchofcoarsescalesneartheheadcalledthecorselet.Thekeels,finlet,andcorselethelpdirecttheflowofwateroverthebodysurfaceinsuchaswayastoreduceresistance(seethefigure).Again,supersonicjetshavesimilarfeatures.Becausetheyarealwaysswimming,tunassimplyhavetoopentheirmouthsandwaterisforcedinandovertheirgills.Accordingly,theyhavelostmostofthemusclesthatotherfishesusetosuckinwaterandpushitpastthegills.Infact,tunasmustswimtobreathe.Theymustalsokeepswimmingtokeepfromsinking,sincemosthavelargelyorcompletelylosttheswimbladder,thegasfilledsacthathelpsmostotherfishremainbuoyant.Onepotentialproblemisthatopeningthemouthtobreathedetractsfromthestreamliningofthesefishesandtendstoslowthemdown.Somespeciesoftunahavespecializedgroovesintheirtongue.Itisthoughtthatthesegrooveshelptochannelwaterthroughthemouthandoutthegiltslits,therebyreducingwaterresistance.Thereareadaptationsthatincreasetheamountofforwardthrustaswellasthosethatreducedrag.Again,thesefishesaretheenvyofengineers.Therehigh,narrowtailswithswept-backtipsarealmostperfectlyadaptedtoprovidepropulsionwiththeleastpossibleeffort.Perhapsmostimportantofalltotheseandotherfastswimmersistheirabilitytosenseandmakeuseofswirlsandeddies(circularcurrents)inthewater.Theycanglidepasteddiesthatwouldslowthemdownandthengainextrathrustby"pushingoff"theeddies.Scientistsandengineersarebeginningtostudythisabilityoffishesinthehopeofdesigningmoreefficientpropulsionsystemsforships.Themusclesofthesefishesandthemechanismthatmaintainsawarmbodytemperaturearealsohighlyefficient.Abluefintunainwaterof7℃(45℉)canmaintainacoretemperatureofover25~C(77℉).Thiswarmbodytemperaturemayhelpnotonlythemusclestoworkbetter,butalsothebrainandtheeyes.Thebillfisheshavegoneonestepfurther.Theyhaveevolvedspecial"heaters"ofmodifiedmuscletissuethatwarmtheeyesandbrain,maintainingpeakperformanceofthesecriticalorgans.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TIDES 1 Tides are a natural phenomenon involving the alternating rise and fall in the earth"s large bodies of water caused by the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun. The combination of these two variable forces produces the complex recurrent cycle known as the astronomical tides. Tides occur in oceans and seas, to a limited extent in large lakes and the atmosphere, and, to a very minute degree, in the earth"s solid crust. 2 The force that generates tides is the interaction of two different forces: the gravitational attraction of the moon acting upon the earth"s waters and the centrifugal force produced by the revolution of the earth around the center of gravity of the earth-moon system. Although the moon is only 384,395 kilometers from the earth, compared with the sun"s much greater distance of 149,598,181 kilometers, the moon"s closer distance outranks its much smaller mass, and thus the moon"s tide-raising force is twice more than that of the sun. 3 The tide-generating forces of the moon and sun cause a maximum accumulation of the ocean waters at two opposite positions on the earth"s surface. This means that at any given time there are two high tides on the planet. One is the direct tide on the side facing the moon; the other is the indirect tide on the opposite side. At the same time these two high tides occur, compensating amounts of water are drawn from all points that are 90 degrees away from these bulges . As the earth rotates, a sequence of two high tides and two low tides is produced each day. Successive high tides occur about 12.4 hours apart. The direct high tide at any given location occurs when the moon is overhead; low tide occurs when the moon is at either horizon. 4 The highest and lowest levels of high tide, called spring tide and neap tide, each occurs twice in every lunar month of about 27.5 days. A spring tide occurs at the new moon and at the full moon, when the moon and earth are aligned with the sun, and thus the moon"s pull is reinforced by the sun"s pull. At spring tide, the difference between high and low tides is the greatest. A neap tide, the lowest level of high tide, occurs when the sun-to-earth direction is at right angles to the moon-to-earth direction. When this happens, the gravitational forces of the moon and sun counteract each other; thus, the moon"s pull is at minimum strength, and the difference between high and low tides is the least. Spring and neap tides at any given location have a range of about 20 percent more or less, respectively, than the average high tide. 5 The vertical range of tides—the difference between high and low—varies according to the size, surface shape, and bottom topography of the basin in which tidal movement occurs. Typically, the tidal range in the open ocean is less than it is near the coasts. For example, in the open water of the central Pacific, the range is no more than 0.3 meters, but in the relatively small, shallow North Sea, it is about 3.6 meters. Along the narrow channel of the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, the difference between high and low tides may reach 16 meters under spring tide conditions—the world"s widest tidal range. At New Orleans, which is at the mouth of the Mississippi River, the periodic rise and fall of the tides varies with the river"s stage, being about 0.24 meters at low stage and zero at high stage. In every case, actual high or low tide can vary considerably from the average. 6 Several physical factors influence tidal ranges, such as abrupt changes in atmospheric pressure, prolonged periods of extreme high or low pressure, the density and volume of seawater, and variations in ocean-current velocities. Any of these factors alone can alter sea level; however, in combination with earthquakes, hurricanes, or other phenomena, they are particularly forceful. Hurricane winds, for instance, can heap ocean water into powerful storm surges that increase the impact of the astronomical tides. When a storm surge coincides with the astronomical high tide, the resulting storm tide may reach up to six meters or more above the normal high tide. The greater and more rapid the change of water level, the greater the erosive effect of the tidal action. Currents created by storm tides combine with the waves to erode beaches, coastal highways, and foundations of buildings.

Reading5"SpeechandWriting"Itisawidelyheldmisconceptionthatwritingismoreperfectthanspeech.Tomanypeople,writingsomehowseemsmorecorrectandmorestable,whereasspeechcanbecareless,corrupted,andsusceptibletochange.Somepeopleevengosofarastoidentifylanguagewithwritingandtoregardspeechasasecondaryformoflanguageusedimperfectlytoapproximatetheidealsofthewrittenlanguage.→Oneofthebasicassumptionsofmodernlinguistics,however,isthatspeechisprimaryandwritingissecondary.Themostimmediatemanifestationoflanguageisspeechandnotwriting.Writingissimplytherepresentationofspeechinanotherphysicalmedium.Spokenlanguageencodesthoughtintoaphysicallytransmittableform,whilewriting,inturn,encodesspokenlanguageintoaphysicallypreservableform.Writingisatwo-stageprocess.Allunitsofwriting,whetherlettersorcharacters,arebasedonunitsofspeech,i.e.,words,sounds,orsyllables.Whenlinguistsstudylanguage,theytakethespokenlanguageastheirbestsourceofdataandtheirobjectofdescription(exceptininstancesoflanguageslikeLatinforwhichtherearenolongeranyspeakers).Thereareseveralreasonsformaintainingthatspeechisprimaryandwritingissecondary.First,writingisalaterhistoricaldevelopmentthanspokenlanguage.CurrentarcheologicalevidenceindicatesthatwritingwasfirstutilizedinSumer,thatis,modern-dayIraq,about6,000yearsago.Asfarasphysicalandculturalanthropologistscantell,spokenlanguagehasprobablybeenusedbyhumansforhundredsofthousandsofyears.→Second,writingdoesnotexisteverywherethatspokenlanguageexists.Thisseemshardtoimagineinourhighlyliteratesociety,butthefactisthattherearestillmanycommunitiesintheworldwhereawrittenformoflanguageisnotused,andeveninthoseculturesusingawritingsystem,thereareindividualswhofailtolearnthewrittenformoftheirlanguage.Infact,themajorityoftheEarth'sinhabitantsareilliterate,thoughquitecapableofspokencommunication.However,nosocietyusesonlyawrittenlanguagewithnospokenform.Third,writingmustbetaught,whereasspokenlanguageisacquiredautomatically.Allchildren,exceptchildrenwithseriouslearningdisabilities,naturallylearntospeakthelanguageofthecommunityinwhichtheyarebroughtup.Theyacquirethebasicsoftheirnativelanguagebeforetheyenterschool,andeveniftheyneverattendschool,theybecomefullycompetentspeakers.Writingsystemsvaryincomplexity,butregardlessoftheirlevelofsophistication,theymustallbetaught.Finally,neurolinguisticevidence(studiesofthebraininactionduringlanguageuse)demonstratesthattheprocessingandproductionofwrittenlanguageisoverlaidonthespokenlanguagecentersinthebrain.Spokenlanguageinvolvesseveraldistinctareasofthebrain;writingusestheseareasandothersaswell.→Sowhatgivesrisetothemisconceptionthatwritingismoreperfectthanspeech?Thereareseveralreasons.Foronething,theproductofwritingisusuallymoreaptlywordedandbetterorganized,containingfewererrors,hesitations,andincompletesentencesthanarefoundinspeech.Thisperfectionofwritingcanbeexplainedbythefactthatwritingistheresultofdeliberation,correction,andrevision,whilespeechisthespontaneousandsimultaneousformulationofideas;writingisthereforelesssubjecttotheconstraintoftimethanspeechis.Inaddition,writingisultimatelyassociatedwitheducationandeducatedspeech.Sincethespeechoftheeducatedismoreoftenthannotsetupasthe"standardlanguage,"writingisassociatedindirectlywiththevarietiesoflanguagethatpeopletendtoviewas"correct."However,theassociationofwritingwiththestandardvarietyisnotanecessaryone,asevidencedbytheattemptsofwriterstotranscribefaithfullythespeechoftheircharacters.MarkTwain'sHuckleberryFinnandJohnSteinbeck'sOfMiceandMencontainexamplesofthis,Furthermore,becausespokenlanguageisphysicallynomorethansoundwavesthroughtheair,itistransient,butwritingtendstolast,becauseofitsphysicalmedium(charactersonsomesurface),andcanbepreservedforaverylongtime.Spellingdoesnotseemtovaryfromindividualtoindividualorfromplacetoplaceaseasilyaspronunciationdoes.Thus,writinghastheappearanceofbeingmorestable.Spellingdoesvary,however,asexemplifiedbythedifferencesbetweentheAmericanwaysofspellinggrayandwordswiththesuffixes-izeand-izationascomparedwiththeBritishspellingofgreyand-iseand-isation.Writingcouldalsochangeifitweremadetofollowthechangesofspeech.Thefactthatpeopleatvarioustimestrytocarryoutspellingreformsamplyillustratesthispossibility.

MATHEMATICIANS 1 Like a painter or a poet, a mathematician is a creator of patterns, but mathematical patterns are made with ideas rather than paint or words. Mathematicians are motivated by the belief that they may be able to create a pattern that is entirely new, one that changes forever the way that others think about the mathematical order. Mathematics allows great speculative freedom, and mathematicians can create any kind of system they want. However, in the end, every mathematical theory must be relevant to physical reality, either directly or by importance to the body of mathematics. 2 Mathematicians have an exceptional ability to manage long chains of reasoning. They routinely develop theories from very simple contexts and then apply them to very complex ones. For example, they may develop a formula for the movement of an ameba and then try to apply it to successive levels of the animal kingdom, concluding with a theory of human walking. 3 An extended chain of reasoning may be intuitive, and many mathematicians report that they sense a solution long before they have worked out each step in detail. However, even when guided by intuition, they must eventually work out the solution in exact detail if they are to convince others of its validity. They must demonstrate the solution without any errors or omissions in definition or in line of reasoning. In fact, errors of omission (forgetting a step) or of commission (making some assumption that is untrue) can destroy the value of a mathematical contribution. The mathematician must be rigorous: no fact can be accepted unless it has been proved by steps conforming to universally accepted principles. 4 At the center of mathematical talent lies the ability to recognize significant problems and then to solve them. One source of delight for mathematicians is finding the solution to a problem that has long been considered insoluble. Other accomplishments are inventing a new field of mathematics and discovering links between otherwise separate fields of mathematics.

1 The 2,000-year-old complex of mounds occupying thirteen acres on the banks of the Scioto River in southwestern Ohio is one of the most important sites of the Hopewell Indian culture. Their mound construction was especially intensive in this area. It offers evidence that this society flourished in the Ohio Valley for five hundred years. 2 The 23 mounds are spaciously placed but with no overall pattern. Archaeologists have determined that the complex--called Mound City--was apparently both a village and a burial site. Numerous artifacts have been found in excavations of the burial mounds. They include shell beads, bear and shark teeth, pottery, and ear spools of copper and silver. A number of pipes found in one mound--probably belonging to a chief or priest--are remarkable for their exquisite workmanship and stylized realism in the likenesses of animals and birds: wildcat, beaver, great blue heron, and raven.

Which of the following statements about William Faulkner is true? Click on two answers.

Biology: Diabetes Professor: Hi, folks. Welcome. Today we are going to learn about diabetes. It"s a disease which is becoming more and more common in North America. However, it"s ______ in Asian countries. It"s generally believed that the North American lifestyle is the ______. Now, let"s just ______ the lifestyle of the average North American person—if there is such a thing. In general, people don"t walk anywhere because they drive cars; people ______ and buy fast foods like hamburgers and fried chicken; portions in fast food restaurants are getting bigger and bigger; and things like potato chips and ______ seem to be a favorite snack. Everything seems to be rushed, with no time to relax and smell the roses. A lot of people never ______, and this doesn"t help. In the end, men get love handles and women never stop talking about ______. It"s not a good way to live. The thing is that diabetes can be ______ food and exercising regularly. If everyone did this then we wouldn"t have to think about love handles and diets as we would all be ______. It"s the weight increase that has ______. There are two types of diabetes. The one known as Type 1 is more severe. It can result ______, blindness, kidney failure and heart disease. People with Type 1 diabetes ______ like the flu and pneumonia easier than people who do not have diabetes. Student: I heard about diabetes but I didn"t know it was this bad. The man ______ has it. I saw him injecting himself when I was there. I thought it was maybe ______. Would it have anything to do with his diabetes? Professor: I"d have to say yes. You see, what happens is that with Type 1 the pancreas can"t make or doesn"t make enough insulin. Insulin is important to the body because it ______. If there is not enough insulin or none at all, the body has to be given some. Student: Well, what about Type 2? Is it as bad or even worse? Professor: No, it"s not ______. The person may have ______ they have it. In fact, it would probably ______. My own father always complained that ______. The only other thing that was different was that after a bottle of beer you would think he was drunk. ______, nothing appeared to be wrong. Student: So, what happened? Professor: My mother ______ in company after a bottle of beer and made him go to the doctor. The doctor figured it out. Student: Is he OK now? Professor: Yeah. Kind of. He doesn"t like all the healthy food my mother has been preparing for him. He says if he eats any more salads and vegetables ______. She has ______, to be honest. Student: Are there any other signs? Professor: There"s a few. Being thirsty all the time, having to go to the bathroom a lot, getting ______, losing weight for no reason, having no get-up-and-go, ______ that keep coming back. Student: How about research and statistics? Are there any way to back up what you say? Professor: ______. You"ll find all kinds in magazines, newspapers, websites, ... Why don"t you ask your doctor the next time you go to see him or her?

Whatistheconversationmainlyabout?A.Theimportanceofvocabularylearning.B.Thesizeofvocabulary.C.Vocabularylearningstyles.D.Vocabularybuildingstrategies.

Directions : Read the passage

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS 1 Social behavior is communication that permits a group of animals of the same species to become organized cooperatively. Social behavior includes any interaction that is a consequence of one animal's response to another of its own species, such as an individual fighting to defend a territory. However, not all aggregations of animals are social. Clusters of moths attracted to a light at night or trout gathering in the coolest pool of a stream are groupings of animals responding to environmental signals. Social aggregations, on the other hand, depend on signals from the animals themselves, which stay together and do things together by influencing one another. 2 Social animals are not all social to the same degree. Some species cooperate only long enough to achieve reproduction, while others--such as geese and beavers--form strong pair bonds that last a lifetime. The most persistent social bonds usually form between mothers and their young. For birds and mammals, these bonds usually end when the young can fly, swim, or run and find enough food to support themselves. 3 One obvious benefit of social organization is defense--both passive and active--from predators. Musk oxen that form a passive defensive circle when threatened by a pack of wolves are much less vulnerable than an individual facing the wolves alone. A breeding colony of gulls practices active defense when they, alerted by the alarm calls of a few, attack a predator as a group. Such a collective attack will discourage a predator more effectively than individual attacks. Members of a town of prairie dogs cooperate by warning each other with a special bark when a predator is nearby. Thus, every individual in a social organization benefits from the eyes, ears, and noses of all other members of the group. Other advantages of social organization include cooperation in hunting for food, huddling for protection from severe weather, and the potential for transmitting information that is useful to the society.

Alternate Fuels ? Ethanol is an alcohol-based alternative fuel. It is clear and colorless. When ethanol is blended with gasoline, it improves emission qualities and increases octane. Ethanol can be produced from sugar cane and sugar beets which are feedstock that contain sugar, it can also be produced from barley, corn, wheat, and other starch crops that can be easily converted into sugar by fermenting and distilling those crops. Even cellulose feedstock such as corn stalks, rice straw, pulpwood, and municipal solid waste can be used to produce ethanol. ? Most U.S. ethanol production takes place in the Midwest. Larger ethanol producers use a wet-milling method to manufacture ethanol but usually ethanol production begins when the feedstock is ground up so it can be quickly processed. Once ground up, sugar in the feedstock is either dissolved or the starch in the feedstock is converted to sugar. The sugars are fed to microbes as food, and the microbes produce ethanol and carbon dioxide in the process. In the final step of the production process, the ethanol is purified to a desired concentration. ? The future for ethanol as a fuel is bright. In 1990 the U.S. government enacted the Clean Air Act Amendments and mandated oxygenated fuels be sold in areas which had unhealthy levels of carbon monoxide. Since that time the demand for ethanol as an oxygenated fuel has increased and approximately two billion gallons of ethanol are now added to gasoline each year to increase octane and improve emissions qualities. Numerous vehicles are ethanol-compatible and most of the vehicles which can be purchased today can run on blends often percent ethanol and ninety percent gasoline. Some vehicles can use as much as fifteen percent ethanol in the gasoline blend. U.S. consumption of ethanol is projected to be more than seven billion liters by the year 2012. By the year 2020, world demand for the product is expected to be between 120 and 130 billion liters. Ethanol"s future also appears bright because it sells for less than the cost of oil and it can supply needs when crude oil supplies and refining capacities are limited. Besides, because of the variety of stocks that can be used to produce large amounts of this renewable fuel, increased job opportunities and economic growth may result. ? Biodiesel, a diesel replacement fuel, is a blend of diesel and a soy or canola additive and can be made from animal fats and vegetable oils mixed with alcohol or methanol, and even recycled cooking grease. It is a renewable fuel which has been used by the Washington State Ferry service and Washington state municipalities for buses and garbage trucks. The U.S. Postal Service and U.S. Departments of Defense, Energy, and Agriculture have also joined the list of biodiesel users. Although biodiesel prices generally exceed regular diesel prices, many users are willing to pay a premium to use this alternate fuel. Additional cost is not required, however, for special pumps or high pressure fueling equipment. Biodiesel stations are not common in the western states, and private users are difficult to count. A major biodiesel plant would require around 100,000 acres to be planted in canola or mustard seed to produce five million gallons of biodiesel annually but it has been difficult to convince farmers to begin growing these crops as rotation crops with wheat plantings because canola and mustard crops have been unprofitable in the past. [■] Methanol, which has similar physical and chemical characteristics to ethanol, has benefits over gasoline because it provides lower emissions for automobiles as well as higher performance and lower risk of flammability. [■] One disadvantage of methanol"s use is that it produces a high amount of formaldehyde in emissions. Another disadvantage is that its manufacture is only economically feasible on an industrial scale. [■] Methanol is also toxic and may cause permanent health damage with extensive exposure. Methanol can be used in flexible fuel vehicles that function on a blend of fifteen percent gasoline and eighty-five percent methanol but this alternate fuel, which is also known as wood alcohol, is not commonly used because automobile manufacturers are no longer making methanol-powered vehicles. [■] ? Alternative vehicular fuels are being used worldwide in a variety of ways. They can be used in fleet vehicles or personal vehicles and most of the fuels have positive impacts on the environment. They can reduce harmful pollutants, lessen exhaust emissions, and be produced domestically. Because they are manufactured from renewable sources they may be the preferred fuels of tomorrow. Glossary barley: a widely distributed cereal plant belonging to the genus Hordeum, of the grass family vehicular: of vehicles (means by which someone travels) biodiesel: fuel produced from renewable biological resources

DadaandPopArtDadawasasubversivemovementintheartsthatflourishedmainlyinFrance,Switzerland,andGermanyfrom1916to1923.Dadawasbasedontheprinciplesofdeliberateirrationalityandanarchy.Itrejectedlawsofbeautyandsocialorganizationandattemptedtodiscoverauthenticrealitythroughthedestructionoftraditionalcultureandaestheticforms.Themovement'sfoundersincludedtheFrenchartistJeanArpandthewritersTristanTzaraandHugoBall.Atameetingofyoungartistsin1916inZurich,oneoftheminsertedapaperknifeintoaFrench-Germandictionary.Theknifepointedtotheworddada,aFrenchbaby-talkwordforahobbyhorse,whichthegroupsawasanappropriatetermfortheiranti-art.DadaemergedfromdespairovertheFirstWorldWaranddisgustfortheconservativevaluesofsociety.Dadawasthefirstexpressionofprotestagainstthewar.Dadaistsusedabsurditytocreateartworksthatmockedsocietyyetdefiedintellectualanalysis,suchastheuseof"found"objectsinsculpturesandinstallations.TheforerunneroftheDadaists,andultimatelytheirleadingmember,wasMarcelDuchamp,whoin1913createdhisfirst"ready-made",theBicycleWgeel,consistingofawheelmountedontheseatofastool.Inhisefforttodiscourageaesthetics,Duchampshockedtheartestablishmentwiththeseready-mades--manufacturedobjectsthatheselectedandexhibited--includingabottlerackandacomb.TheDadamovementextendedtoliteratureandmusicandbecameinternationalafterthewar.IntheUnitedStatesthemovementwascenteredinNewYorkCity.DadaistsonbothsidesoftheAtlantichadonegoalincommon:todemolishcurrentaestheticstandards.FiftyyearsaftertheDadaists,anothergenerationofartistsreactedtothestandardsandvaluesofsociety.However,insteadofrejectingordinarythings,theyoungartistsofthePopmovementofthe1960sembracedthem.Popartistswerecuriousaboutthecommercialmediaofads,billboards,newsprint,television,andallaspectsofpopularculture.Thus,thebarrierbetween"high"and"low"artcollapsed,whichtheDadaistshadaimedforandthePopartistsattainedwithanenergynotseenbefore.PopartreceiveditsnamefromcriticLawrenceAlloway,whoconsideredPoptobethecultureofthemassmedia,photographs,andposters--astylethatmustbepopular,transitory,andwitty.ThesubjectmatterofPopartwasderivative,depictingsomethingthathadalreadybeenpublishedorproduced,suchascomicstrips,soft-drinkbottles,andphotographsofmoviestars.Popartcaughtonquickly;itwasartaboutmassconsumptionthatwaseagerlyconsumedbythemasses.ThemostpopularofthePopartistswasthepainterRoyLichtenstein.Lichtensteinpaintedenlargedcopiesoftheleast"arty"thingshecouldfind:romanceandadventurecomicstrips.HewasthefirstAmericanartisttoreacttocomicstrips,findingbeautyinthesecrudedesigns,alongwithadistinctsenseofstyle.Lichtensteinalsopaintedotherpictorialstyles,includingblowupsofotherartists'brushstrokesandparodiesofCubismandArtDeco.AndyWarhol,morethananyotherPopartist,tookonthemind-numbingoverloadofAmericanmassculture.Warholbeganhiscareerasacommercialillustrator,andin1962hehadhisfirstexhibitioninanartgallery,whereheshowedhis32Campbell'sSoupCans.Thethirty-twosoupcansareaboutsameness:samebrand,samesize,samepaintsurface,andsamefame.Theymimictheconditionofmassadvertising.AllofWarhol'sworkflowedfromonecentralinsight:masscultureisfilledwithimagesthatbecomemeaninglessbybeingrepeatedagainandagain,andinthisglutofinformationisaroleforart.Warholfeltthisandembodiedit.Heconveyedacollectivestateofmindinwhichcelebrity--afamousbrandnameortheimageofafamousperson--hadcompletelyreplacedsacrednessinart.Glossary:anarchy:absenceofanyformofauthority;disorder;confusionaesthetic:relatingtobeauty;artistic

{{B}}Set3{{/B}}{{B}}AMessengerfromthePast{{/B}}Hispeoplesaidgood-byeandwatchedhimwalkofftowardthemountains.Theyhadlittlereasontofearforhissafety:themanwaswelldressedininsulatedclothingandequippedwithtoolsneededtosurvivetheAlpineclimate.However,asweekspassedwithouthisreturn,theymusthavegrownworried,thenanxious,andfinallyresigned,Aftermanyyearseveryonewhoknewhimhaddied,andanoteevenamemoryofthemanremained.Then,onanimprobablydistantday,hecamedownfromthemountain.Thingshadchangedabit:itwasn'ttheBronzeAgeanymore,andhewasacelebrity.Whenameltingglacierreleaseditsholdona4,000-year-oldcorpseinSeptember,itwasquiterightlycalledoneofthemostimportantarcheologicalfindsofthecentury.DiscoveredbyaGermancouplehikingat10,500feetintheItalianTyrolneartheAustrianborder,thepartiallyfreeze-driedbodystillworeremnantsofleathergarmentsandbootsthathadbeenstuffedwithstrawforinsulation.ThehikersalertedscientistsfromtheUniversityofInnsbruckinAustria,whosemorecompleteexaminationrevealedthatthemanwastattooedonhisbackandbehindhisknee.AthissidewasabronzeaxofatypetypicalinsoutherncentralEuropearound2000BC.Onhisexpedition--perhapstohuntortosearchformetalore--hehadalsocardedanall-purposestoneknife,awoodenbackpack,abowandaquiver,asmallbagcontainingaflintlighterandkindling,andanarrowrepairkitinaleatherpouch.SucheverydaygeargivesanunprecedentedperspectiveonlifeinearlyBronzeAgeEurope."Themostexcitingthingisthatwegenuinelyappeartobelookingatamanwhohadsomekindofaccidentinthecourseofaperfectlyordinarytrip,"saysarcheologistIanKinnesoftheBritishMuseum."Thesearenotartifactsplacedinagrave,butthefellow'sownpossessions."UnliketheEgyptiansandMesopotamiansofthetime,whohadmoreadvancedcivilizationswithcitiesandcentralauthority,theIceManandhiscountrymenlivedinasocietybuiltaroundsmall,stablevillages.HeprobablyspokeinatongueancestraltocurrentEuropeanlanguages.Furthermore,thoughhewasamemberofafarmingculture,hemaywellhavebeenhuntingwhenhedied,toaddmeattohisfamily'sdiet.X-raysofthequivershowedthatitcontained14arrows.Whilehisbackpackwasempty,carefulexplorationofthetrenchwherehediedrevealedremnantsofanimalskinandbonesatthesamespotwherethepacklay.Therewasalsotheremainderofapileofberries.Clearlythemandidn'tstarvetodeath.Thetrenchprovidedhimsowithshelterfromtheelements,andhealsohadabraidedmatofgrasstokeephimwarm.IfinjuryorillnesscausedtheIceMan'sdeath,anautopsyonthe4,000-year-oldvictimcouldturnupsomeclues.Thecircumstancesofhisdeathmayhavepreservedsuchevidence,aswellasotherdetailsofhislife.Freeze-driedbythefrigidclimate,hisinnerorgansandothersofttissuesaremuchbetterpreservedthanthoseofdried-upEgyptianmummiesorthewaterloggedScandinavian"BogMen"foundinrecentyears.Oneconcern,voicedbyarcheologistColinRenfrewofCambridgeUniversity,isthatthehotTVlightsthatgreetedthehunter'sreturntocivilizetionmayhavedamagedthesefragiletissues,jeopardizingachancetorecoveradditionalpreciousgeneticinformationfromhischromosomes.Ifnot,Renfrewsays,"itmaybepossibletogetverylongDNAsequencesoutofthismaterial.Thisisfarandawaythemostexcitingaspectofthediscovery."Forthetimebeing,allbiologicalresearchhasliterally68beenputoniceattheUniversityofInnsbruckwhileaninternationalteamofexperts,ledbyresearcherKonradSpindler,puzzleesoutawaytothawthebodywithoutdestroyingit.Assensationalasitsounds,itremainstobeseenhowuseful4,000-year-oldhumanDNAwillreallybe."Theproblemisthatwearedealingwithasingleindividual,"saysevolutionarybiologistRobertSokaloftheStateUniversityofNewYorkatStonyBrook."Inordertomakestatementsaboutthepopulationthatexistedatthetime,weneedmorespecimens."Thewishformoremessengersfromthepastmayyetcometrue.Fivemorebodiesofmountainclimbers,allofwhomdiedwithinthepast50years,haveemergedfrommeltingAustrianmountainicethissummer.TheIceMan'sreturnfromtheTyrolhasdemonstratedthatthelocalclimateiswarmernowthanithasbeenfor4,000years.Peoplearebeginningtowonderlandplanfor--whatthemeltingicemayrevealnext."Nooneeverthoughtthiscouldhappen,"saysChristopherStringer,ananthropologistattheNaturalHistoryMuseuminLondon."Thefactthatithasoccurredoncemeansthatpeoplewillnowbelookingforitagain."