{{B}}Set 3{{/B}} THE SENSE OF SMELL1 Smell is the most direct of all the senses. It is thought to be the oldest sense in terms of human evolution, which may explain why smell is {{U}}hard-wired{{/U}} into the brain. The olfactory nerve, which manages the perception of smells, is essentially an extension of the brain. The olfactory nerve provides a direct link from receptors at the top of the nose to the portion of the brain that controls memory, emotion, and behavior.2 The olfactory system {{U}}detects{{/U}} certain airborne chemicals that enter the nose and then transmits this chemical information to the limbic system in the brain. The olfactory region at the upper end of each nostril is yellow, moist, and full of fatty substances. The shade of yellow indicates the strength of the sense of smell: the deeper the shade, the keener and more acute it is. Animals have a very strong sense of smell, so their olfactory regions are dark yellow to reddish brown, while those of humans are light yellow.3 When an odorous substance enters the nose, it binds to olfactory receptor cells, the neurons lining the yellow upper portion of the nasal cavity. Olfactory receptor cells contain microscopic hairs called cilia that extend into the layer of mucus coating the inside of the nose. Odor molecules {{U}}diffuse{{/U}} into this region and are absorbed by the cilia of the olfactory receptor cells. What this means is that when we hold a rose to our nose and inhale, odor molecules float up into the nasal cavity, where they are absorbed by five million olfactory receptor cells. The receptor cells alert the olfactory nerve, which sends impulses to the brain's olfactory bulb, or smell center. Thus, olfactory information about the rose enters the brain's limbic system, where, in most of us, it stimulates a feeling of pleasure.4 The limbic system of the brain {{U}}integrates{{/U}} memory, emotion, and behavior. The system is composed of a group of related nervous system structures that are the functional center of emotions such as anger, fear, pleasure, and sadness. The components of the limbic system are linked to the cerebral cortex, the part of the brain involved in complex learning, reasoning, and personality. The cerebral cortex makes decisions about the emotional content of these unique human qualities after "consulting" the limbic system and other brain centers in processing and retrieving memories. It may, in turn, use memories to modify behavior. 5 Scent may be the strongest trigger of memory and emotions. When we inhale a scent, receptors in the brain's limbic center compare the odor entering our nose to odors stored in our memory. Along the way, memories associated with those odors are stimulated. A smell can be overwhelmingly nostalgic because it triggers powerful images and emotions. The waxy fragrance of {{U}}crayons{{/U}} can instantly transport us to our second-grade classroom, or the scent of {{U}}freshly mown grass{{/U}} can flood us with the joy of summer freedom. {{U}}What we see and hear may fade quickly in short-term memory, but what we smell is sent directly to long-term memory. {{/U}}6 Smells can increase alertness and stimulate learning and retention. In one study, children memorized a word list, which was presented both with and without accompanying scents. The children recalled words on the list more easily and with higher accuracy when the list was given with scents than without, showing the link between smell and the ability to retain information. In another study, researchers examined how various smells can increase alertness and decrease stress. They found that the scent of lavender could wake up the metabolism and make people more alert. They also found that the smell of spiced apples could reduce blood pressure and avert a panic attack in people under stress. Glossary: nostalgic: causing a desire for things, persons, or situations of the past; causing homesickness retention: the act of retaining; keeping, holding, or maintaining

Whydoestheadministrativeassistantapologizetothestudentwhenheinformshershewillhavetopayfifteendollarsforherstudentcard?

Listening6"'PsychologyClass"

Addiction Alcoholism and drug addiction has already reached epidemic proportions in the 21st Century. One of the biggest misconceptions about addiction is that it only affects certain groups within society: for example that poor people from poor neighborhoods and ethnic minorities are more likely to be addicted to alcohol and drugs. The truth is however that addiction is blind to race, color and socio-economic background. Another fact is that drug and alcohol related crimes are increasing all over the world. There are many reasons why a person might first try drugs. [■] Some of these might include peer pressure from friends, stress and personality characteristics. People take drugs and alcohol because of the elevating or relaxing effects they have on the body otherwise people wouldn"t take them in the first place. But as the person develops a habit, the chemistry of the brain starts to change and adapt, demanding more and more of the drug as it resists the discomfort of withdrawal. The person becomes an addict and the initial masons for taking the drug soon pale in significance as the need for drugs and or alcohol begins to dominate every aspect of the addict"s life. Addictions are lifelong illnesses that are very hard to treat. The disturbing fact is that 1/3rd of patients who do receive treatment usually relapse within one year. Many scientists believe that addiction is related to our most basic instinct, survival. Since the beginning of time our brain has evolved to ensure the survival of our species. The brain controls behavior by rewarding actions that will ensure survival of the species. For example, the intake of nutrients such as sugars and fats activate taste receptors that in turn activate brain reward mechanisms. The activation of these mechanisms produces certain changes in the individual ranging from being in a much better mood to intense pleasure and euphoria. We are far more likely to continue to seek out and eat these nutrients because the brain rewards us for taking the nutrients into the body by releasing chemicals that make us feel good. [■] The problem lies in the fact that these reward systems do not only reward the intake of harmless substances such as sugars and fats. Some chemicals activate brain reward systems directly, bypassing the sensory receptors mediating natural rewards. Caffeine, alcohol and nicotine all activate brain reward mechanisms directly. [■] But other far more harmful drugs such as heroine, crack and cocaine are better at activating brain reward systems, producing a far more powerful effect compared to a feeling of calmness or relaxation after eating a good nutritious meal. The activation is much more intense causing the individual to crave the drug and to focus their activities around taking the drug. The ability of addictive drugs to strongly activate brain reward mechanisms and their ability to chemically alter the normal functioning of these systems can produce an addiction. However some people become addicted while others do not. Many people drink alcohol or smoke cannabis or even cocaine and other illegal drugs but this does not necessarily make them addicts and not all addicts have the same intensity of addiction. It has been estimated that approximately 10% of any population of any country will tend to have an addictive nature and become addicts of some kind. It is true that though that some races, notably Native American Indians and Eskimos, do tend to have higher rates of addiction than others for reasons that are not fully understood. It is also true that people who become addicts may be highly intelligent and be extremely motivated but are unable to control their addiction. Addiction is by no means dependent on intelligence. Some of the most skilled and intelligent people might become addicts even though they are fully aware of the detrimental nature of continuing to take drugs or alcohol. [■] The fact is that still we do not know why some people become addicts and others do not although there are many theories that reason that some people simply have an "addictive personality type"—being far more susceptible to the reward mechanism that produces addiction—while others still believe that it is the addicts" lack of will power to refrain from taking drugs or alcohol. The biggest killer though is a person"s denial of his or her condition, that they believe that they do not have a problem, do not seek help but instead continue the abuse until they have either lost everything or die as the body cannot cope and eventually shuts down. Glossary relapse: start to behave undesirably again; get worse (health)

Reading1"RisingSeaLevels"Perhapsthemostpervasiveclimaticeffectofglobalwarmingisrapidescalationoficemelt.MountKilimanjaroinAfrica,portionsoftheSouthAmericanAndes,andtheHimalayaswillverylikelylosemostoftheirglacialicewithinthenexttwodecades,affectinglocalwaterresources.GlacialicecontinuesitsretreatinAlaska.NASAscientistsdeterminedthatGreenland'sicesheetisthinningbyabout1mperyear.Theadditionalmeltwater,especiallyfromcontinentalicemassesandglaciers,isaddingtoariseinsealevelworldwide.Satelliteremotesensingismonitoringglobalsealevel,seaice,andcontinentalice.Worldwidemeasurementsconfirmthatsealevelroseduringthelastcentury.SurroundingthemarginsofAntarctica,andconstitutingabout11%ofitssurfacearea,arenumerousiceshelves,especiallywhereshelteringinletsorbaysexist.Coveringmanythousandsofsquarekilometers,theseiceshelvesextendovertheseawhilestillattachedtocontinentalice.Thelossoftheseiceshelvesdoesnotsignificantlyraisesealevel,fortheyalreadydisplaceseawater.Theconcernisforthepossiblesurgeofgroundedcontinentalicethattheiceshelvesholdbackfromthesea.Althoughiceshelvesconstantlybreakuptoproduceicebergs,somelargesectionshaverecentlybrokenfree.In1998aniceberg(150kmby35km)brokeofftheRonneIceShelf,southeastoftheAntarcticPeninsula.InMarch2000anicebergtaggedB-15brokeofftheRossIceShelf(some90°longitudewestoftheAntarcticPeninsula),measuring300kmby40km.Since1993,sixiceshelveshavedisintegratedinAntarctica.About8000kmoficeshelfaregone,changingmaps,freeingupislandstocircumnavigation,andcreatingthousandsoficebergs.TheLarsenIceShelf,alongtheeastcoastoftheAntarcticPeninsula,hasbeenretreatingslowlyforyears.Larsen-Asuddenlydisintegratedin1995.Inonly35daysinearly2002,Larsen-Bcollapsedintoicebergs.Thisicelossislikelyaresultofthe2.5℃temperatureincreaseintheregioninthelast50years.Inresponsetotheincreasingwarmth,theAntarcticPeninsulaissportingnewvegetationgrowth,previouslynotseenthere.→Alossofpolaricemass,augmentedbymeltingofalpineandmountainglaciers(whichexperiencedmorethana30%decreaseinoverallicemassduringthelastcentury)willaffectsea-levelrise.TheIPCCassessmentstatesthat"betweenone-thirdtoone-halfoftheexistingmountainglaciermasscoulddisappearoverthenexthundredyears."Also,"thereisconclusiveevidenceforaworldwiderecessionofmountainglaciers...ThisisamongtheclearestandbestevidenceforachangeinenergybalanceattheEarth'ssurfacesincetheendofthe19thcentury."Sea-levelrisemustbeexpressedasarangeofvaluesthatareunderconstantreassessment.The2001IPCCforecastforglobalmeansea-levelrisethiscentury,givenregionalvariations,isfrom0.11-0.88m.Themedianvalueof0.48mistwotofourtimestherateofpreviousincrease.Theseincreaseswouldcontinuebeyond2100evenifgreenhousegasconcentrationsarestabilized.→TheScrippsInstituteofOceanographyinLaJolla,California,haskeptoceantemperaturerecordssince1916.Significanttemperatureincreasesarebeingrecordedtodepthsofmorethan300masoceantemperaturerecordsareset.Eventhewarmingoftheoceanitselfwillcontributeabout25%ofsea-levelrise,simplybecauseofthermalexpansionofthewater.Inaddition,anychangeinoceantemperaturehasaprofoundeffectonweatherand,indirectly,onagricultureandsoilmoisture,infacttheoceansystemappearstohavedelayedsomesurfaceglobalwarmingduringthepastcenturythroughabsorptionofexcessatmosphericheat.→Aquicksurveyofworldcoastlinesshowsthatevenamoderaterisecouldbringchangesofunparalleledproportions.Atstakearetheriverdeltas,lowlandcoastalfarmingvalleys,andlow-lyingmainlandareas,allcontendingwithhighwater,hightides,andhigherstormsurges.Particularlytragicsocialandeconomicconsequenceswillaffectsmallislandstates—beingabletoadjustwithintheirpresentcountryboundaries,disruptionofbiologicalsystems,lossofbiodiversity,reductioninwaterresources,amongtheimpacts.Therecouldbebothinternalandinternationalmigrationofaffectedhumanpopulations,spreadoverdecades,aspeoplemoveawayfromcoastalfloodingfromthesea-levelrise.

GadgetswithaSportingChanceConsumerelectronics:Newsportsequipment,fromtennisracketstorunningshoes,usesprocessingpowertoenhanceperformance.Isthatfair?Whyshouldaspiringathletesstandonthesidelineswhenaspotofelectronicassistancecanputtheminthemiddleofthegame?Thatisthequestionmanysports-equipmentmakersareaskingastheysenseanopportunitytoboosttheirsaleswithhigh-techproducts.Youcouldcallittherevengeofthenerds:anewwaveofmicrochip-equippedsportinggoodspromisestoenhancetheperformanceofnovicesandnon-sportingtypesalike--andcouldevenmakedifficultsportseasier.Takecross-countryskiing.VictorPetrenko,anengineeratDartmouthCollege'sIceResearchLabinNewHampshire,hasinventedsomesmartski-brakesthat,hebelieves,willincreasethepopularityofcross-countryskiingbymakingthesportlesschallengingforbeginners.Thebrakes,currentlybeingtestedbyaskimanufacturerintheAlps,offerthenecessaryfrictionforabigger"kick-offforce"andmaketheskislesslikelytoslidebackwardsintheirtracks.Tomakethishappen,anelectriccurrentfromthebottomoftheskispulsesthroughtheice,meltingathinlayerofsnowthatinstantlyrefreezesandactsasasortofglue.Thisisnottheonlyformofsmartskitohittheslopes.Atomic,aleadingski-makerbasedinAustria,planstointroduceasystemlaterthisyearthatrunsadiagnosticsafetychecktoensurethattheskibindingisproperlyclosed,withtheresultbeingshownonatinybuilt-inliquid-crystaldisplay.Meanwhile,tennisequipmentmanufacturersarehopingthatinnovationwillbringnewziptotheirbusinessaswell.Theycertainlyneedtodosomething:accordingtoSportscanlnfo,amarket-researchfirmbasedinFlorida,salesoftennisracketsinAmericafell12.5%duringthefirsthalfof2004comparedwiththefirsthalfof2003.Withtheballclearlyintheircourt,researchersatHead,amakerofsportingequipment,havedevisedaproductthatshouldappealtoplayerssufferingfromtenniselbow.Achipinsidetheracketcontrolspiezo-electricfibres,whichconvertmechanicalenergyfromtheball'simpactintoelectricalpotentialenergy.Thisenergyisthenusedtogenerateacounter-forceinthepiezo-electricfibresthatcausesadampeningeffect.Allofthis,thefirmsays,translatesintolessstressontheelbow.Headclaimsthatresidualvibrationsintheracketaredampenedtwiceasfastasinconventionalrackets,reducingtheshockexperiencedbytheplayer'sarmbymorethan50%.Nodoubtpuristswillobjectthatthisissimplynotcricket.Rule-makersinmanysportsarenowbeingforcedtoconsidertheimplicationsofequipmentthatpromisestoaugmentathletes'performancewithelectronicmuscle.TheInternationalTennisFederation,thatbodyisresponsibleforsettingtherulesofthegame,hasspecifiedinitsmostrecentguidelinesthat"noenergysourcethatinanywaychangesoraffectstheplayingcharacteristicsofaracketmaybebuiltintoorattachedtoaracket".Yetdespitesuchwording,theguidelinedoesnotactuallyeliminatetheuseofHead'ssmartrackets,becausethereisnoexternalenergysource--thedampingeffectreliessolelyonenergyfromtheball'simpact.Thoughhigh-techequipmentmaycausecontroversyonthecourt,tennisclubshavetoadheretotheguidelinessetforthesport,explainsStuartMiller,theITF'stechnicalmanager.Andiftherulesallowself-generatedforcestomodifyaracket'sresponse,sobeit.Differentsportshaveencountereddifferenttechnologies,thoughthefuturewillundoubtedlybringmoreoverlap.Ingolf,gadgetsthatpinpointthelocationofthegreenusingtheGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS).Therule-makingbodyoftheRoyalandAncientGolfClubofSt.Andrews,whichoverseesthegameinallcountriesexceptAmericaanditsdependencies,currentlyprohibitstheuseofdistance-measuringdevices.Asaresult,golferscannotrelyonGPSaidsinatournament.Whiletechnologicalinnovationingolfequipmentshouldcontinue,theplayer'sskillshouldremainthepredominantfactor,saysDavidRickman,whoisinchargeoftheclub'srulesandequipmentstandards.Thetrendtowardshigh-techassistanceisnotlimitedtosportswithareputationforexpensivegear,however.Evenrunning,thatmostbasicofsports,providesscopeforelectronicenhancement.TheAdidasrunningshoe,whichisduetobelaunchedinDecember,incorporatesabattery-poweredsensorthattakesabout1,000readingsasecond.Amicroprocessorthendirectsatinyembeddedelectricmotortoadjustthecharacteristicsofthesneaker,enablingittochangethedegreeofcushioningdependingonthesurfaceconditionsandthewearer'srunningstyleandfootposition.Theraceforthesmartestuseofmicrochipsinsportingequipment,itseems,hasbegun.

{{B}}Narrator{{/B}} Listen to a part of a discussion in a business class. The professor is discussing what was taught in the last class.

Listentopartofaconversationbetweentwostudents.Nowgetreadytoanswerthequestions.Youmayuseyournotestohelpyouanswer.

Reading2"WeatherandChaoticSystems"Scientiststodayhaveaverygoodunderstandingofthephysicallawsandmathematicalequationsthatgovernthebehaviorandmotionofatomsintheair,oceans,andland.Why,then,dowehavesomuchtroublepredictingtheweather?Foralongtime,mostscientistsassumedthatthedifficultyofweatherpredictionwouldgoawayoncewehadenoughweatherstationstocollectdatafromaroundtheworldandsufficientlypowerfulcomputerstodealwithallthedata.However,wenowknowthatweatherisfundamentallyunpredictableontimescaleslongerthanafewweeks.Tounderstandwhy,wemustlookatthenatureofscientificprediction.→Supposeyouwanttopredictthelocationofacaronaroad1minutefromnow.Youneedtwobasicpiecesofinformation:wherethecarisnow,andhowfastitismoving.IfthecarisnowpassingSmithRoadandheadingnorthat1mileperminute,itwillbe1milenorthofSmithRoadin1minute.Now,supposeyouwanttopredicttheweather.Again,youneedtwobasictypesofinformation:(1)thecurrentweatherand(2)howweatherchangesfromonemomenttothenext.Youcouldattempttopredicttheweatherbycreatinga"modelworld."Forexample,youcouldoverlayaglobeoftheEarthwithgraphpaperandthenspecifythecurrenttemperature,pressure,cloudcover,andwindwithineachsquare.Theseareyourstartingpoints,orinitialconditions.Next,youcouldinputalltheinitialconditionsintoacomputer,alongwithasetofequations(physicallaws)thatdescribetheprocessesthatcanchangeweatherfromonemomenttothenext.→SupposetheinitialconditionsrepresenttheweatheraroundtheEarthatthisverymomentandyourunyourcomputermodeltopredicttheweatherforthenextmonthinNewYorkCity.Themodelmighttellyouthattomorrowwillbewarmandsunny,withcoolingduringthenextweekandamajorstormpassingthroughamonthfromnow.Nowsupposeyourunthemodelagainbutmakeoneminorchangeintheinitialconditions—say,asmallchangeinthewindspeedsomewhereoverBrazil.Fortomorrow'sweather,thisslightlydifferentinitialconditionwillnotchangetheweatherpredictionforNewYorkCity.Butfornextmonth'sweather,thetwopredictionsmaynotagreeatall!Thedisagreementbetweenthetwopredictionsarisesbecausethelawsgoverningweathercancauseverytinychangesininitialconditionstobegreatlymagnifiedovertime.Thisextremesensitivitytoinitialconditionsissometimescalledthebutterflyeffect:Ifinitialconditionschangebyasmuchastheflapofabutterfly'swings,theresultingpredictionmaybeverydifferent.→Thebutterflyeffectisahallmarkofchaoticsystems.Simplesystemsaredescribedbylinearequationsinwhich,forexample,increasingacauseproducesaproportionalincreaseinaneffect.Incontrast,chaoticsystemsaredescribedbynonlinearequations,whichallowforsubtlerandmoreintricateinteractions.Forexample,theeconomyisnonlinearbecauseariseininterestratesdoesnotautomaticallyproduceacorrespondingchangeinconsumerspending.Weatherisnonlinearbecauseachangeinthewindspeedinonelocationdoesnotautomaticallyproduceacorrespondingchangeinanotherlocation.Many(butnotall)nonlinearsystemsexhibitchaoticbehavior.→Despitetheirname,chaoticsystemsarenotcompletelyrandom.Infact,manychaoticsystemshaveakindofunderlyingorderthatexplainsthegeneralfeaturesoftheirbehaviorevenwhiledetailsatanyparticularmomentremainunpredictable.Inasense,manychaoticsystemsare"predictablyunpredictable."Ourunderstandingofchaoticsystemsisincreasingatatremendousrate,butmuchremainstobelearnedaboutthem.

DRAMA IN ANCIENT GREECE 1 Long before the ancient Greeks could read and write, they learned of their history and culture through epic poetry chanted by bards or singers. The bards chanted stories in standard musical phrases that were accompanied by musical instruments such as the lyre, a general name for any of several stringed instruments favored by the bards. The greatest bard, Homer, was a poet, singer and master of the lyre. According to tradition, Homer was a wandering minstrel who traveled from place to place chanting stories of gods and heroes. Another famous poet, singer, and lyre player was Sappho, who started a school for girls, where she taught the arts of music, poetry, and dance. 2 Greek civilization reached a golden age during the fifth century BC, when politics, philosophy, art, architecture, and theater thrived, as they never had before. As the Greeks took new pride in human achievements, they developed ideals of beauty, order, balance, and moderation throughout their culture, including music and drama. 3 Early drama was associated with the worship of the god Dionysus and was an outgrowth of the choral songs and dances performed in honor of the god. The famous outdoor Theater of Dionysus in Athens showed the importance of drama to the Greeks. It was situated on a hillside to take advantage of the natural slope and light, and it could accommodate an audience of 30,000 people. A chorus of singers, dancers, and musicians, led by a singer who stood on steps above them, performed stories that educated and entertained the audience while honoring the god. 4 The crucial innovation that turned choral performance into drama is attributed to Thespis, a poet who is said to have originated tragedy. As the chorus sang the story of a hero or god, Thespis would enter the theater as a masked actor. Between songs, he recited verses as a character in the story, and these spoken verses changed what had been a choral monologue into a dialogue between the actor and the chorus. The legacy of Thespis can be seen in the term "thespian," which now describes anything relating to drama. 5 Actors of that time wore a large mask made of linen or cork, inside which was a device like a speaking trumpet to amplify the voice. When the actor recited, it was in an exalted monotone, often to the accompaniment of flutes. The chorus enhanced the tragedy with various dances and songs, generally accompanied by the lyre. The actor chanted the lines of the lead character, while the chorus sang the narrative passages. Still, despite the attention the actor received, the Chorus and its music continued to dominate dramatic performances with the combined power of singing and dancing. 6 Like Thespis, the playwright Aeschylus acted in his own plays, but he added a second masked actor. Now audience attention could be directed to the interplay between the two actors—action and reaction, question and answer, conflict or cooperation—rather than between the actor and chorus. A later playwright, Sophocles, added a third actor. This made possible not only three-way dramatic scenes but also plays with a large cast of characters, since the masks allowed an actor to play more than one part in different scenes. The addition of actors shifted the focus of drama away from the chorus toward the action and dialogue of the characters. 7 Playwrights continued to introduce innovations, but essentially they adhered to prescribed conventions. One of these conventions limited the number of scenes in a play to five. The drama always took place in one location and within a short span of time, sometimes a single day. Another convention reflected the society's sense of balance and order: bloody deeds rarely took place in front of the audience. Therefore, murders, suicides, and other acts of violence occurred offstage. The Greek concept of moderation is reflected in still another convention, in which any character who acted in an excess of passion was usually punished in the story. Glossary: choral: relating to a chorus, a group of singers or dancers who perform together chorus: a group of singers or dancers who perform together

InwhichpartcanwefindthegeneralwealthoftheMayanpopulation?A.Thenorthernpart.B.Thesouthernpart.C.Thecentralpart.D.Thewesternpart.

Directions:Readthepassage.Thenanswerthequestions.Giveyourself20minutestocompletethispracticeset.COLONIZINGTHEAMERICASVIATHENORTHWESTCOASTIthaslongbeenacceptedthattheAmericaswerecolonizedbyamigrationofpeoplesfromAsiaslowlytravelingacrossalandbridgecalledBeringia(nowtheBeringStraitbetweennortheasternAsiaandAlaska)duringthelastIceAge.Thefirstwatercrafttheoryaboutthismigrationwasthataround11,000-12,000yearsagotherewasanice-freecorridorstretchingfromeasternBeringiatotheareasofNorthAmericasouthofthegreatnorthernglaciers.Itwasthismidcontinentalcorridorbetweentwomassiveicesheets—theLaurentidetotheeastandtheCordillerantothewest—thatenabledthesouthwardmigration.Butbeliefinthisice-freecorridorbegantocrumblewhenpaleoecologistGlenMacDonalddemonstratedthatsomeofthemostimportantradiocarbondatesusedtosupporttheexistenceofanice-freecorridorwereincorrect.Hepersuasivelyarguedthatsuchanice-freecorridordidnotexistuntilmuchlater,whenthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreat.Supportisgrowingforthealternativetheorythatpeopleusingwatercraft,possiblyskinboats,movedsouthwardfromBeringiaalongtheGulfofAlaskaandthensouthwardalongtheNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericapossiblyasearlyas16,000yearsago.ThisroutewouldhaveenabledhumanstoentersouthernareasoftheAmericaspriortothemeltingofthecontinentalglaciers.Untiltheearly1970s,mostarchaeologistsdidnotconsiderthecoastapossiblemigrationrouteintotheAmericasbecausegeologistsoriginallybelievedthatduringthelastIceAgetheentireNorthwestCoastwascoveredbyglacialice.IthadbeenassumedthattheiceextendedwestwardfromtheAlaskan/Canadianmountainstotheveryedgeofthecontinentalshelf—theflat,submergedpartofthecontinentthatextendsintotheocean.ThiswouldhavecreatedabarrieroficeextendingfromtheAlaskaPeninsula,throughtheGulfofAlaskaandsouthwardalongtheNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericatowhatistodaythestateofWashington.ThemostinfluentialproponentofthecoastalmigrationroutehasbeenCanadianarchaeologistKnutFladmark.Hetheorizedthatwiththeuseofwatercraft,peoplegraduallycolonizedunglaciatedrefugesandareasalongthecontinentalshelfexposedbythelowersealevel.Fladmark"shypothesisreceivedadditionalsupportfromthefactthatthegreatestdiversityinNativeAmericanlanguagesoccursalongthewestcoastoftheAmericas,suggestingthatthisregionhasbeensettledthelongest.Morerecentgeologicstudiesdocumenteddeglaciationandtheexistenceofice-freeareasthroughoutmajorcoastalareasofBritishColumbia,Canada,by13,000yearsago.ResearchnowindicatesthatsizableareasofsoutheasternAlaskaalongtheinnercontinentalshelfwerenotcoveredbyicetowardtheendofthelastIceAge.Onestudysuggeststhatexceptfora250-milecoastalareabetweensouthwesternBritishColumbiaandWashingtonState,theNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericawaslargelyfreeoficebyapproximately16,000yearsago.Vastareasalongthecoastmayhavebeendeglaciatedbeginningaround16,000yearsago,possiblyprovidingacoastalcorridorforthemovementofplants,animals,andhumanssometimebetween13,000and14,000yearsago.Thecoastalhypothesishasgainedincreasingsupportinrecentyearsbecausetheremainsoflargelandanimals,suchascaribouandbrownbears,havebeenfoundinsoutheasternAlaskadatingbetween10,000and12,500yearsago.Thisisthetimeperiodinwhichmostscientistsformerlybelievedtheareatobeinhospitableforhumans.Ithasbeensuggestedthatiftheenvironmentwerecapableofsupportingbreedingpopulationsofbears,therewouldhavebeenenoughfoodresourcestosupporthumans.FladmarkandothersbelievethatthefirsthumancolonizationofAmericaoccurredbyboatalongtheNorthwestCoastduringtheverylateIceAge,possiblyasearlyas14,000yearsago.Themostrecentgeologicevidenceindicatesthatitmayhavebeenpossibleforpeopletocolonizeice-freeregionsalongthecontinentalshelfthatwerestillexposedbythelowersealevelbetween13,000and14,000yearsago.Thecoastalhypothesissuggestsaneconomybasedonmarinemammalhunting,saltwaterfishing,shellfishgathering,andtheuseofwatercraft.Becauseofthebarrieroficetotheeast,thePacificOceantothewest,andpopulatedareastothenorth,theremayhavebeenagreaterimpetusforpeopletomoveinasoutherlydirection.

PresidentHoover'sPoliticsDuringtheGreatDepressionAtfirsteverythingseemedfineanddandy.Americawasenjoyingoneofthebiggesteconomicsurgesinthenation'shistory.However,eventhoughAmericabenefitedfromtheeconomicboomofthesocalled"RoaringTwenties",theimbalancebetweentherichandthepoorcombinedwiththeproductionofmoreandmoregoodsandrisingpersonaldebtcausedoneofthebiggestrecessionsinhistory.OnBlackTuesday,October29,1929,thestockmarketcrashed,triggeringtheGreatDepression,whichwastheworsteconomiccollapseinthehistoryofthemodern,industrialworld.ItspreadfromtheUnitedStatesandrippledouttotherestoftheworld,withbanksfailingandbusinessesgoingbustforoveraspanofadecade,leavingmorethanaquarteroftheworkingforceinAmericawithoutjobs.PresidentHerbertHoover,underestimatingtheseriousnessofthecrisis,calledit"apassingincidentinournationallives"andassuredAmericansthatitwouldbeoverwithintwomonths.Hooverdidnotthinkthatthefederalgovernmentshouldofferrelieftothepoverty-strickenpopulationbecausehefirmlybelievedinindividualism.Focusingoneconomicprogramstohelpfinancebusinessesandbanks,Hoovermetwithresistancefrombusinessexecutiveswhopreferredtolayoffworkers.BlamedbymanyfortheGreatDepression,Hooverwaswidelyridiculed.Hoover'seconomywasputtothetestwiththeonsetoftheGreatDepressionin1929.Itwashisvocalstanceonnon-interventionthatledtoDemocraticcriticismthatHooverwasa"sittingduck"president;ontheotherhand,hismorepro-freemarketopponentsalsodeniedhewasalaissez-fairepresidentandcondemnedhimforbeinganinterventionist.Hoovertriedtorestoreconfidencewithaseriesofspeechesbuthisweakspeakingstylehamperedtheseefforts.Thebiggestproblemwasthathispredictionsofanupturnjustaroundthecomernevermaterialized.Hispromiseswerenotdeliveredandhelostalotofthepublic'sconfidence.Together,thegovernmentandbusinessesactuallyspentmoreinthefirsthalfof1930thanthepreviousyear;yetfrightenedconsumerscutbacktheirexpendituresbytenpercent.Aseveredroughtravagedtheagriculturalheartlandbeginninginthesummerof1930,whileforeignbanksdeclaredbankruptcy,drainingU.S.wealthanddestroyingworldtrade.Thecombinationofthesefactorscausedadownwardspiral:asearningfell,domesticbankscollapsed,andmortgageswerecalledin.Hoover'shold-the-linepolicyinwageslastedlittlemorethanayear.Unemploymentsoaredfromfivemillionin1930tooverelevenmillionin1931,causingthissharprecessiontobecometheGreatDepression.In1930,HooverreluctantlysignedtheSmoot-HawleyTariffAct,whichraisedtariffsonover20,000dutiableitems.TheTariff,combinedwiththe1932RevenueAct,whichhikedtaxesandfeesacrosstheboard,isoftenblamedfordeepeningtheeconomicdepression,andisconsideredbysometobeHoover'sbiggestpoliticalmistakes.Moreover,theFederalReserveSystem'stighteningofthemoneysupplyisalsoregardedbymostmoderneconomistsasamistakentactic,underthecircumstances.Inordertocovertheexpensesofthesegovernmentprograms,HooveragreedtooneofthelargesttaxincreasesinAmericanhistory.TheRevenueActof1932raisedtaxesonthehighestincomesfrom25%to63%,whiletheestatetaxwasdoubled,andcorporatetaxeswereraisedbyalmost15%.Also,a"checktax"wasincludedthatplaceda2-centtaxonallbankchecks.Duringthe1932elections,Hoover'sopponentsblastedtheRepublicanincumbentforspendingandtaxingtoomuch,increasingnationaldebt,raisingtariffs,andblockingtrade,aswellasplacingmillionsonthedoleofthegovernment.RooseveltattackedHooverfor"recklessandextravagant"spending,andofleading"thegreatestspendingadministrationinpeacetimeinallofhistory."Unemploymentroseto24.9%bytheendofHoover'spresidencyin1933,ayearthatisconsideredtobethedepthoftheGreatDepression.

HistoricalBackground→TheepicpoemBeowulf,writteninOldEnglish,istheearliestexistingGermanicepicandoneoffoursurvivingAnglo-Saxonmanuscripts.AlthoughBeowulfwaswrittenbyananonymousEnglishmaninOldEnglish,thetaletakesplaceinthatpartofScandinaviafromwhichGermanictribesemigratedtoEngland.BeowulfcomesfromGeatland,thesoutheasternpartofwhatisnowSweden.Hrothgar,kingoftheDanes,livesnearwhatisnowLeire,onZealand,Denmark'slargestisland.TheBeowulfepiccontainsthreemajortalesaboutBeowulfandseveralminortalesthatreflectarichGermanicoraltraditionofmyths,legends,andfolklore.→TheBeowulfwarriorshaveafootinboththeBronzeandIronAges.Theirmead-hallsreflectthewealthylivingoftheBronzeAgeNorthmen,andtheirwoodenshields,wood-shaftedspears,andbronze-hiltedswordsarethoseoftheBronzeAgewarrior.However,theycarryiron-tippedspears,andtheirbestswordshaveironoriron-edgedblades.Beowulfalsoordersanironshieldforhisfightwithadragon.Ironreplacedbronzebecauseitproducedabladewithacuttingedgethatwasstrongerandsharper.TheNorthmenlearnedhowtoforgeironinabout500B.C.AlthoughtheyhadbeensuperiortotheEuropeanCeltsinbronzework,itwastheCeltswhotaughtthemhowtomakeanddesignironwork.IronwasaccessibleeverywhereinScandinavia,usuallyintheformof"bog-iron"foundinthelayersofpeatinpeatbogs.TheBeowulfepicalsorevealsinterestingaspectsofthelivesoftheAngloSaxonswholivedinEnglandatthetimeoftheanonymousBeowulfpoet.TheGermanictribes,includingtheAngles,theSaxons,andtheJutes,invadedEnglandfromaboutA.D.450to600.BythetimeoftheBeowulf.poet,AngloSaxonsocietyinEnglandwasneitherprimitivenoruneutured→AlthoughtheBeowulfmanuscriptwaswritteninaboutA.D.1000,itwasnotdiscovereduntiltheseventeenthcentury.ScholarsdonotknowwhetherBeowulfisthesolesurvivingepicfromaflourishingAnglo-Saxonliteraryperiodthatproducedothergreatepicsorwhetheritwasuniqueeveninitsowntime.Manyscholarsthinkthattheepicwasprobablywrittensometimebetweenthelateseventhcenturyandtheearlyninthcentury.Iftheyarecorrect,theoriginalmanuscriptwasprobablylostduringtheninth-centuryVikinginvasionsofAnglia,inwhichtheDanesdestroyedtheAnglo-Saxonmonasteriesandtheirgreatlibraries.However,otherscholarsthinkthatthepoet'sfavorableattitudetowardtheDanesmustplacetheepic'scompositionaftertheVikinginvasionsandatthestartoftheeleventhcentury,whenthisBeowulfmanuscriptwaswritten.→TheidentityoftheBeowulfpoetisalsouncertain.HeapparentlywasaChristianwholovedthepaganheroictraditionofhisancestorsandblendedthevaluesofthepaganherowiththeChristianvaluesofhisowncountryandtime.BecausehewroteintheAngliandialect,heprobablywaseitheramonkinamonasteryorapoetinanAnglo-SaxoncourtlocatednorthoftheThamesRiver.AppealandValueBeowulfinterestscontemporaryreadersformanyreasons.First,itisanoutstandingadventurestory.Grendel,Grendel'smother,andthedragonaremarvelouscharacters,andeachfightisunique,action-packed,andexciting.Second,Beowulfisaveryappealinghero.Heistheperfectwarrior,combiningextraordinarystrength,skill,courage,andloyalty.LikeHercules,hedevoteshislifetomakingtheworldasaferplace.Hechoosestoriskdeathinordertohelpotherpeople,andhefaceshisinevitabledeathwithheroismanddignity.Third,theBeowulfpoetisinterestedinthepsychologicalaspectsofhumanbehavior.Forexample,theDanishhero'swelcomingspeechillustrateshisjealousyofBeowulf.ThebehaviorofBeowulf'swarriorsinthedragonfightrevealstheircowardice.Beowulf'sattitudestowardheroismreflecthismaturityandexperience,whileKingHrothgar'sattitudestowardlifeshowtheexperiencesofanagednobleman.Finally,theBeowulfpoetexhibitsamatureappreciationofthetransitorynatureofhumanlifeandachievement.InBeowulf,asinthemajorepicsofothercultures,theheromustcreateameaningfullifeinaworldthatisoftendangerousanduncaring.Hemustaccepttheinevitabilityofdeath.Hechoosestorejectdespair;instead,hetakesprideinhimselfandinhisaccomplishments,andhevalueshumanrelationships.

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