Directions : Read the passage. Then answer the questions. Give yourself 20 minutes to complete this practice set. BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS Survival and successful reproduction usually require the activities of animals to be coordinated with predictable events around them. Consequently, the timing and rhythms of biological functions must closely match periodic events like the solar day, the tides, the lunar cycle, and the seasons. The relations between animal activity and these periods, particularly for the daily rhythms, have been of such interest and importance that a huge amount of work has been done on them and the special research field of chronobiology has emerged. Normally, the constantly changing levels of an animal"s activity—sleeping, feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones, for example—are well coordinated with environmental rhythms, but the key question is whether the animal"s schedule is driven by external cues, such as sunrise or sunset, or is instead dependent somehow on internal timers that themselves generate the observed biological rhythms. Almost universally, biologists accept the idea that all eukaryotes (a category that includes most organisms except bacteria and certain algae) have internal clocks. By isolating organisms completely from external periodic cues, biologists learned that organisms have internal clocks. For instance, apparently normal daily periods of biological activity were maintained for about a week by the fungus Neurospora when it was intentionally isolated from all geophysical timing cues while orbiting in a space shuttle. The continuation of biological rhythms in an organism without external cues attests to its having an internal clock. When crayfish are kept continuously in the dark, even for four to five months, their compound eyes continue to adjust on a daily schedule for daytime and nighttime vision. Horseshoe crabs kept in the dark continuously for a year were found to maintain a persistent rhythm of brain activity that similarly adapts their eyes on a daily schedule for bright or for weak light. Like almost all daily cycles of animals deprived of environmental cues, those measured for the horseshoe crabs in these conditions were not exactly 24 hours. Such a rhythm whose period is approximately—but not exactly—a day is called circadian . For different individual horseshoe crabs, the circadian period ranged from 22.2 to 25.5 hours. A particular animal typically maintains its own characteristic cycle duration with great precision for many days. Indeed, stability of the biological clock"s period is one of its major features, even when the organism"s environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. Further evidence for persistent internal rhythms appears when the usual external cycles are shifted—either experimentally or by rapid east-west travel over great distances. Typically, the animal"s daily internally generated cycle of activity continues without change. As a result, its activities are shifted relative to the external cycle of the new environment. The disorienting effects of this mismatch between external time cues and internal schedules may persist, like our jet lag, for several days or weeks until certain cues such as the daylight/darkness cycle reset the organism"s clock to synchronize with the daily rhythm of the new environment. Animals need natural periodic signals like sunrise to maintain a cycle whose period is precisely 24 hours. Such an external cue not only coordinates an animal"s daily rhythms with particular features of the local solar day but also—because it normally does so day after day—seems to keep the internal clock"s period close to that of Earth"s rotation. Yet despite this synchronization of the period of the internal cycle, the animal"s timer itself continues to have its own genetically built-in period close to, but different from, 24 hours. Without the external cue, the difference accumulates and so the internally regulated activities of the biological day drift continuously, like the tides, in relation to the solar day. This drift has been studied extensively in many animals and in biological activities ranging from the hatching of fruit fly eggs to wheel running by squirrels. Light has a predominating influence in setting the clock. Even a fifteen-minute burst of light in otherwise sustained darkness can reset an animal"s circadian rhythm. Normally, internal rhythms are kept in step by regular environmental cycles. For instance, if a homing pigeon is to navigate with its Sun compass, its clock must be properly set by cues provided by the daylight/darkness cycle.

PAIN 1 Virtually all animals experience pain. Pain is a distress call from the body signaling some damaging stimulus or internal disorder. It is one of the most important sensations because it is translated into a negative reaction, such as withdrawal from danger. Rare individuals who are born without the ability to feel pain may die from such conditions as a ruptured appendix because they are unaware of the danger. 2 Pain receptors are unspecialized nerve fiber endings that respond to a variety of stimuli signaling real or possible damage to tissues. Some groups of pain receptors respond to specific classes of chemicals released from damaged or inflamed tissue. When pain fibers respond to peptides released by injured cells, this is called slow pain. Fast pain responses--for example, a pinprick or hot or cold stimuli--are a more direct response of the nerve endings to mechanical or thermal stimuli. 3 There is no pain center in the cerebral cortex. However, discrete areas have been located in the brain stem where pain messages from various parts of the body terminate. These areas contain two kinds of small peptides, endorphins and enkephalins, which have activity similar to morphine or opium. When these peptides are released, they bind with specific opiate receptors in the midbrain, decreasing the perception of pain.

{{B}}Set4{{/B}}{{B}}ImportanceofVitamins{{/B}}Vitamins,whichcomeinmanydifferenttypesallofwhicharequitediverseinchemicalconfigurationandfunction,canbeanyofseveralorganicsubstancesthatareseparatedintowater-solubleandfat-solublegroups.Originallydefinedasorganiccompoundsobtainableinanormaldietandcapableofmaintaininglifeandpromotinggrowth,vitaminsaredifferrentfromcarbohydrates,fats,andproteinsinfunction,aswellasinthequantitiesinwhichorganismsrequirethem.Socriticalarevitaminstoabody'sessentialstrengthandhealththatiftheyareabsentfromthedietornotproperlyabsorbedbyanorganism,aspecificdeficiencydiseasemaydevelop.Thetermvitaminoriginatedfrom"vitamine,"awordfirstusedintheearly19thcenturytodesignateagroupofcompoundsconsideredvitalforlife(thoughtheterm"accessoryfoodfactor"sometimesisusedinterchangeablytorefertothesesubstances).Likeothernutrients,vitaminconsumptionisimperativetokeepourbodiesfunctioningproperly,andifthereisalackofvitaminconsumption,thebodywillfailtoreactinawaythat'sconsideredhealthy.LackofvitaminAwillresultinvariousdisordersthatmostcommonlyinvolvetheeyeandthetissuesaroundit.OneoftheearliestsymptomsofvitaminAdeficiencyisnyctalopia,themedicaltermfornightblindness,whichcausesavisualfailuretoadaptquicklyfromlighttodarknessandaninabilitytoseeinthedark.Thisaspectofvisionisnormallydependentonrhodopsin,aproteinfoundintheeyethatmaintainsitselfonlyinthepresenceofvitaminA;inthelackofvitaminA,rhodopsinwillmalfunction.Theseearliersymptomsarequiteharmlessbutthesideeffectscanbecomeincreasinglyseriousifnottreatedearlyon.Ifthedeficiencyissevereandpersists,especiallyinmalnourishedinfantsandchildren,aconditionknownasxerophthalmia--whentheeyesaresensitivetolight,thesecretionoflubricatingtearsisstopped,andtheeyelidsbecomeswollenanddeveloppus--maydevelop.Furthermore,themucoussurfacesoftheeyemaybecomeeroded,allowinginfectiontosetin,thusleadingtoulcerationandotherdestructivechangesofthecorneaandotherstructuresoftheeye,resultingeventuallyinblindness.EarlysignsofvitaminAdeficiencymayalsobereflectedinchangesinthemembranesofthemouth,throat,andrespiratoryandgenito-urinarypassageswheretheliningmembranesbecomemalnourishedanddryandlosetheircilia,thetinyhairlikeprojectionsthatnormallyhelpinclearingawayforeignparticles.ThenaturalimmunesystemisweakenedandifinsufficientintakeofvitaminAisprolonged,theskinmaybecomedryandrough.VitaminAdeficiencymayalsoresultindefectiveboneandteethformationandinpoorgeneralgrowth.However,anexcessiveintakeofvitaminAcanalsocauseseveredamagestothebodycausingasymptomcalled"hypervitaminosisA",whichhappenswhenapersontakesinmorethan150milligramsofvitaminAoveralongperiodoftime;thevitaminsarestoredintheliverandcanreachdangerouslevelbecausetheAvitaminsarenotemployedtomakethebodiesstronger,butrather,storedastoxicmaterial.ExcessiveamountsofvitaminAcancausenausea,drynessofskin,blurredvision,drowsiness,andbonepain.VitaminAcanbefoundinallanimallivers,inmilkproducts,andinmanyyellowandgreenleafyvegetableswhichcontaincarotenes,chemicallyrelatedsubstancesthatareconvertedtovitaminAinthebody.Therearevariousothervitaminsthatthehumanbodyneedsinordertosurvive;theexcessiveintakeofvitaminA,orthelackofintakeofothervitamins,causesdetrimenttothehumanbody--atalltimes,moderationiskey.

Select the appropriate sentences from the answer choices and match them to the type of technology that they describe．TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used．This ques60n is worth 3 points． Answer Choices A．This technology was introduced in the fifteenth century． B．Information was preserved on clay tablets and parchment scrolls． C．The first technology of this type was the telegraph． D．Multiple copies of a book could be produced quickly． E．The mass broadcast of voices and images became possible． F．Only a few wealthy people have benefited from this technology． G．Rates of literacy increased because of this technology．

Artificial Intelligence Any discussion of artificial intelligence, or A.I., must inevitably start with the question of what exactly intelligence is. Unfortunately, it is not an easy matter to decide. Intelligence is normally defined as the ability to recognize relationships and to build upon them. However, computers can often do that better than humans, yet they are not therefore considered more intelligent. Desires, goals, and preferences are also important, as is a sense of self- awareness, when we talk about what we mean by artificial intelligence. The scope and depth of a program's coverage of all of these attributes determine which of the two main sorts of artificial intelligence it belongs to. Weak A.I. is the main type of artificial intelligence that exists today. Weak A.I. programs do not attempt to mimic human consciousness or encapsulate the full range of human mental activity. Instead, they attempt to perform one particular problem-solving task very well. The most obvious example of such a program is the chess-playing computer Deep Blue, which, in May of 1997, became the first computer to defeat a current world champion in a standard tournament match. Deep Blue is clearly more intelligent than humans when it comes to chess, but it just as clearly has no greater consciousness that would allow it to compete with us in any other area. Other examples of weak A.I. include computerized grammar checkers, e-mail spam filters, and Internet chat bots. Because these sorts of programs are limited to specific tasks, and because they have become so familiar to us, they are not often considered artificial intelligence programs by most members of the general public. Nevertheless, they all represent considerable advances in the A.I. field, and form the best examples of the progress computer scientists have made towards creating thinking machines. Strong A.I. is the other type of artificial intelligence and is what most people think of when they hear the term. Strong A.I. refers to computers that have a wide range of general cognitive abilities, including consciousness or self-awareness. No strong A.I. programs actually exist today, but scientists continue to work on developing one that works. At present, there are two main approaches to the creation of strong A.I. The first involves attempting to build a computer that is modeled after the human brain. The main problem with this approach is that scientists do not yet have a complete understanding of the human brain, so that any models based on it must necessarily be flawed. In addition, the human brain is so complex that it is virtually impossible to create a computer model based on it with today's processing technology. The second approach involves trying to create a strong A.I. program based on building up existing computer programs. This approach has the advantage of allowing scientists to make progress on strong A.I. software without having tofirst develop much mere powerful hardware, but also raises the interesting question of Whether or not they would even recognize success: a strong A.I. program that was not modeled after the human brain might not manifest its intelligence: ina manner noticeable to its programmers. Scientists and philosophers have long debated exactly how a computer might prove to us that it had developed genuine intelligence, yet no solid consensus exists. Indeed, we often find it difficult to judge another human being's level of intelligence, so it is perhaps unsurprising that we find measuring a computer's simulation of that ability nearly impossible. ■(A) One method for gaging the success of a strong A.I. program is called the Turing Test. ■(B) First proposed in the 1950s, a Turing Test works by having a judge or series of judges engage in a written conversation with hidden test subjects, some of whom are human and some of whom are actually computers. ■(C) The theory is that a computer that could be mistaken for a human being by another human being would have to be considered intelligent. ■(D) While this test has certainly spurred programmers to create much more advanced programs, many doubt its efficacy. For a computer to pass the test, it must have broad, generalized knowledge, but human experts participating in the test have often been misidentified as computers for having too much knowledge of a particular topic. Moreover, even if a computer could talk about things in exactly the same way we do, it would still lack desires or goals, which, for many, is a key element of true A.I.

Inthelecture,theprofessordescribestheutilitiesthatarecreatedbythetwobasicfunctions—productionsandmarketing.Indicatewhichofthefollowingisbyproductionandwhichisbymarketing.Clickinthecorrectboxforeachphrase.

Directions: Read the passage. Then answer the questions. Give yourself 20 minutes to complete this practice set. WHAT IS A COMMUNITY? The Black Hills forest, the prairie riparian forest, and other forests of the western United States can be separated by the distinctly different combinations of species they comprise. It is easy to distinguish between prairie riparian forest and Black Hills forest—one is a broad-leaved forest of ash and cottonwood trees, the other is a coniferous forest of ponderosa pine and white spruce trees. One has kingbirds; the other, juncos (birds with white outer tail feathers). The fact that ecological communities are, indeed, recognizable clusters of species led some early ecologists, particularly those living in the beginning of the twentieth century, to claim that communities are highly integrated, precisely balanced assemblages. This claim harkens back to even earlier arguments about the existence of a balance of nature, where every species is there for a specific purpose, like a vital part in a complex machine. Such a belief would suggest that to remove any species, whether it be plant, bird, or insect, would somehow disrupt the balance, and the habitat would begin to deteriorate. Likewise, to add a species may be equally disruptive. One of these pioneer ecologists was Frederick Clements, who studied ecology extensively throughout the Midwest and other areas in North America. He held that within any given region of climate, ecological communities tended to slowly converge toward a single endpoint, which he called the "climatic climax." This "climax" community was, in Clements's mind, the most well-balanced, integrated grouping of species that could occur within that particular region. Clements even thought that the process of ecological succession—the replacement of some species by others over time—was somewhat akin to the development of an organism, from embryo to adult. Clements thought that succession represented discrete stages in the development of the community (rather like infancy, childhood, and adolescence), terminating in the climatic "adult" stage, when the community became self-reproducing and succession ceased. Clements's view of the ecological community reflected the notion of a precise balance of nature. Clements was challenged by another pioneer ecologist, Henry Gleason, who took the opposite view. Gleason viewed the community as largely a group of species with similar tolerances to the stresses imposed by climate and other factors typical of the region. Gleason saw the element of chance as important in influencing where species occurred. His concept of the community suggests that nature is not highly integrated. Gleason thought succession could take numerous directions, depending upon local circumstances. Who was right? Many ecologists have made precise measurements, designed to test the assumptions of both the Clements and Gleason models. For instance, along mountain slopes, does one life zone, or habitat type, grade sharply or gradually into another? If the divisions are sharp, perhaps the reason is that the community is so well integrated, so holistic, so like Clements viewed it, that whole clusters of species must remain together. If the divisions are gradual, perhaps, as Gleason suggested, each species is responding individually to its environment, and clusters of species are not so integrated that they must always occur together, It now appears that Gleason was far closer to the truth than Clements. The ecological community is largely an accidental assemblage of species with similar responses to a particular climate. Green ash trees are found in association with plains cottonwood trees because both can survive well on floodplains and the competition between them is not so strong that only one can persevere. One ecological community often flows into another so gradually that it is next to impossible to say where one leaves off and the other begins. Communities are individualistic. This is not to say that precise harmonies are not present within communities. Most flowering plants could not exist were it not for their pollinators—and vice versa. Predators, disease organisms, and competitors all influence the abundance and distribution of everything from oak trees to field mice. But if we see a precise balance of nature, it is largely an artifact of our perception, due to the illusion that nature, especially a complex system like a forest, seems so unchanging from one day to the next.

LookingatTheatreHistoryOneoftheprimarywaysofapproachingtheGreektheatreisthrougharcheology,thesystematicstudyofmaterialremainssuchasarchitecture,inscriptions,sculpture,vasepainting,andotherformsofdecorativeart.Seriouson-siteexcavationsbeganinGreecearound1870,butW.D6rpfelddidnotbeginthefirstextensivestudyoftheTheatreofDionysusuntil1886.Sincethattime,morethan167otherGreektheatreshavebeenidentifiedandmanyofthemhavebeenexcavated.Nevertheless,theystilldonotpermitustodescribethepreciseappearanceoftheskene(illustrationsprintedinbooksareconjecturalreconstructions),sincemanypiecesareirrevocablylostbecausethebuildingsinlaterperiodsbecamesourcesofstoneforotherprojectsandwhatremainsisusuallybrokenandscattered.Thatmostofthebuildingswereremodeledmanytimeshascreatedgreatproblemsforthoseseekingtodateboththepartsandthesuccessiveversions.Despitethesedrawbacks,archeologyprovidesthemostconcreteevidencewehaveaboutthetheatrestructuresofancientGreece.But,iftheyhavetoldusmuch,archeologistshavenotcompletedtheirwork,andmanysiteshavescarcelybeentouched.Perhapsthemostcontroversialuseofarcheologicalevidenceintheatrehistoryisvasepaintings,thousandsofwhichhavesurvivedfromancientGreece.(MostofthoseusedbytheatrescholarsarereproducedinMargareteBieber's"TheHistoryoftheGreekandRomanTheatre".)Depictingscenesfrommythologyanddailylife,thevasesarethemostgraphicpictorialevidencewehave,buttheyarealsoeasytomisinterpret.Somescholarshaveconsideredanyvasethatdepictsasubjecttreatedinasurvivingdramaoranysceneshowingmasks,fluteplayers,orceremonialstobevalidevidenceoftheatricalpractice.Thisisahighlyquestionableassumption,sincetheGreeksmadewidespreaduseofmasks,dances,andmusicoutsidethetheatreandsincethemythsonwhichdramatistsdrewwereknowntoeveryone,includingvasepainters,whomightwelldepictthesamesubjectsasdramatistswithoutbeingindebtedtothem.Thosevasesshowingscenesunquestionablytheatricalarefewinnumber.WrittenevidenceaboutancientGreektheatreisoftentreatedaslessreliablethanarcheologicalevidencebecausemostwrittenaccountsareseparatedsofarintimefromtheeventstheydescribeandbecausetheyprovidenoinformationabouttheirownsources.Ofthewrittenevidence,thesurvivingplaysareusuallytreatedasthemostreliable.ButtheoldestsurvivingmanuscriptsofGreekplaysdatefromaroundthetenthcentury,C.E.,some1500yearsaftertheywerefirstperformed.Sinceprintingdidnotexistduringthistimespan,copiesofplayshadtobemadebyhand,andthereforethepossibilityoftextualerrorscreepinginwasmagnified.Nevertheless,thescriptsofferusourreadiestaccesstotheculturalandtheatricalconditionsoutofwhichtheycame.Butthesescripts,likeotherkindsofevidence,aresubjecttovaryinginterpretations.Certainlyperformancesembodiedamaleperspective,forexample,sincetheplayswerewritten,selected,staged,andactedbymen.Yettheexistingplaysfeaturenumerouschorusesofwomenandmanyfeaturestrongfemalecharacters.Becausethesecharactersoftenseemvictimsoftheirownpowerlessnessandappeartobegoverned,especiallyinthecomedies,bysexualdesire,somecriticshaveseentheseplaysasrationalizationsbythemale-dominatedcultureforkeepingwomensegregatedandcloistered.Othercritics,however,haveseeninthesesameplaysanattemptbymaleauthorstoforcetheirmaleaudiencestoexamineandcallintoquestionthissegregationandcloisteringofAthenianwomen.ByfarthemajorityofwrittenreferencestoGreektheatredatefromseveralhundredyearsaftertheeventstheyreport.Thewritersseldommentiontheirsourcesofevidence,andthuswedonotknowwhatcredencetogivethem.Intheabsenceofmaterialnearerintimetotheevents,however,historianshaveusedtheaccountsandhavebeengratefultohavethem.Overall,historicaltreatmentoftheGreektheatreissomethinglikeassemblingajigsawpuzzlefromwhichmanypiecesaremissing,historiansarrangewhattheyhaveandimagine(withtheaidoftheremainingevidenceandlogic)whathasbeenlost.Asaresult,thoughthebroadoutlinesofGreektheatrehistoryarereasonablyclear,manyofthedetailsremainopentodoubt.Glossary:skene:astagebuildingwhereactorsstoretheirmasksandchangetheircostumes

WATER AND LIFE ON MARS 1 The presence or absence of water has a direct bearing on the possibility of life on other planets. In the nineteenth century, it was commonly accepted that life, perhaps even intelligent life, was widespread in the solar system, and Mars was an obvious target in the search for life. New photographic technology offered a way for astronomers to learn more about the red planet. In 1888, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli produced images that showed a network of long, thin, dark lines crossing the surface of Mars. He called these features canali in Italian, which became "canals" or "channels" in English. The strange appearance of the canals suggested to some scientists that they had been formed artificially rather than naturally. The mystery deepened when Schiaparelli observed that many of the canals in the photographs were actually double. 2 Other photographic images of Mars revealed its seasonally changing polar ice caps and features that appeared to be ancient islands located in what was now a dry streambed. When the islands were first discovered, some scientists speculated that a thick water-laden atmosphere capable of generating heavy rains had once existed on Mars. However, others remained unconvinced of the presence of water. Then, in 1963, a team of astronomers obtained a good photographic plate of the near-infrared spectrum of Mars. The photograph showed that, faintly but definitely, water vapor lines could be seen. This photograph established that there really was water on Mars, though the amount was very small. Today, the presence of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere is generally accepted, as is the belief that the atmosphere was once much denser than it is now, with a much greater abundance of water vapor. 3 The surface of Mars is dry today, but it does contain significant amounts of ice and signs that liquid water once flowed over the planet. All of the locations where evidence of water has been found are ancient, probably formed very early in Martian history. Data transmitted from spacecraft on Mars in 2004 have revealed that water was once common across a vast region of the planet, possibly as shallow lakes or seas that dried out and then filled up again. There are signs that the wind blew debris around during dry stages. These seas and lakes extended across hundreds of thousands of square miles, creating habitable conditions during long stretches of time billions of years ago. 4 Evidence of water includes the presence of various minerals known as evaporates, deposits left behind when liquid water turns to vapor. Small areas of mineral deposits have been found in Valles Marineris, a huge hole on Mars that is larger than the Grand Canyon on Earth. The minerals there contain water, so they had to be formed in the presence of water. Geologic research has also turned up clay and gypsum deposits that were formed by water in the soil. Rocks that clearly formed in water extend throughout 300 meters of layered materials in several locations across the Martian plains. The layers were built up over time, which means water was present, at least temporarily, for extended periods on ancient Mars. 5 Besides the ice packs at Mars's poles, astronomers have discovered a frozen sea near its equator. This frozen sea is the size of the North Sea on Earth and appears similar to the ice packs on Antarctica. Scientists have also detected evidence of lava flows 20 million years ago as well as signs that some volcanoes may still be active. Several recently formed volcanic cones near Mars's North Pole indicate that the planet's core may interact with the surface, meaning there was both warmth and moisture in the recent pas-circumstances that might have supported life. 6 Liquid water is the key ingredient for life as we know it. Of all the other planets in the solar system, Mars is most like Earth. The fact that water existed on ancient Mars does not necessarily mean life ever emerged there; however, all of the available evidence does suggest that Mars meets all the requirements that are needed for life to exist.

OrganicArchitectureOneofthemoststrikingpersonalitiesinthedevelopmentofearly-twentieth-centuryarchitecturewasFrankLloydWright(1867-1959).WrightattendedtheUniversityofWisconsininMadisonbeforemovingtoChicago,whereheeventuallyjoinedthefirmheadedbyLouisSullivan.Wrightsetouttocreate"architectureofdemocracy".EarlyinfluenceswerethevolumetricshapesinasetofeducationalblockstheGermaneducatorFriedrichFroebeldesigned,theorganicunityofaJapanesebuildingWrightsawattheColumbianExpositioninChicagoin1893,andaJeffersonianbeliefinindividualismandpopulism.Alwaysabelieverinarchitectureas"natural"and"organic",Wrightsawitasservingfreeindividualswhohavetherighttomovewithina"free"space,envisionedasanonsymmetricaldesigninteractingspatiallywithitsnaturalsurroundings.Hesoughttodevelopanorganicunityofplanning,structure,materials,andsite.Wrightidentifiedtheprincipleofcontinuityasfundamentaltounderstandinghisviewoforganicunity."Classicarchitecturewasallfixation.Nowwhynotletwalls,ceilings,floorsbecomeseenascomponentpartsofeachother?Thisideal,profoundinitsarchitecturalimplications,Icalledcontinuity."Wrightmanifestedhisvigorousoriginalityearly,andby1900hehadarrivedatastyleentirelyhisown.Inhisworkduringthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,hiscross-axialplanandhisfabricofcontinuousroofplanesandscreensdefinedanewdomesticarchitecture.WrightfullyexpressedtheseelementsandconceptsintheRobieHouse,builtbetween1907and1909.LikeotherbuildingsintheChicagoareahedesignedataboutthesametime,thiswascalleda"prairiehouse".Wrightconceivedthelong,sweepingground-hugginglines,unconfinedbyabruptwalllimits,asreachingouttowardandcapturingtheexpansivenessoftheMidwest'sgreatflatlands.Abandoningallsymmetry,thearchitecteliminatedafacade,extendedtheroofsfarbeyondthewalls,andallbutconcealedtheentrance.Wrightfilledthe"wandering"planoftheRobieHousewithintricatelyjoinedspaces(somelargeandopen,othersclosed),groupedfreelyaroundagreatcentralfireplace.(Hebelievedstronglyinthehearth'sage-olddomesticsignificance.)Wrightdesignedenclosedpatios,overhangingroofs,andstripwindowstoprovideunexpectedlightsourcesandglimpsesoftheoutdoorsaspeoplemovethroughtheinteriorspace.Theseelements,togetherwiththeopengroundplan,createasenseofspace-in-motioninsideandout.Hesetmassesandvoidsinequilibrium;theflowofinteriorspacedeterminedtheexteriorwallplacement.Theexterior'ssharpangularplanesmeetatapparentlyoddangles,matchingthecomplexplayofinteriorsolids,whichfunctionnotasinertcontainingsurfacesbutaselementsequivalentinroletothedesign'sspaces.TheRobieHouseisagoodexampleofWright's"naturalism",hisadjustingofabuildingtoitssite.However,inthisparticularcase,theconfinesofthecitylotconstrainedthebuilding-to-siterelationshipmorethandidthesitesofsomeofWright'smoreexpansivesuburbanandcountryhomes.TheKaufmannHouse,nicknamed"Fallingwater"anddesignedasaweekendretreatatBearRunnearPittsburgh,isaprimeexampleofthelatter.Perchedonarockyhillsideoverasmallwaterfall,thisstructureextendstheRobieHouse'sblockymassesinallfourdirections.Thecontrastintexturesbetweenconcrete,paintedmetal,andnaturalstonesinitswallsenlivenitsshapes,asdoesWright'suseoffull-lengthstripwindowstocreateastunninginterweavingofinteriorandexteriorspace.TheimpliedmessageofWright'snewarchitecturewasspace,notmassaspacedesignedtofitthepatron'slifeandenclosedanddividedasrequired.Wrighttookspecialpainstomeethisclient'srequirements,oftendesigningalltheaccessoriesofahouse.Inthelate1930s,heactedonacherisheddreamtoprovidegoodarchitecturaldesignforlessprosperouspeoplebyadaptingtheideasofhisprairiehousetoplansforsmaller,lessexpensivedwellings.ThepublicationofWright'splansbroughthimameasureoffameinEurope,especiallyinHollandandGermany.TheissuanceinBerlinin1910ofaportfolioofhisworkandanexhibitionofhisdesignsthefollowingyearstimulatedyoungerarchitectstoadoptsomeofhisideasaboutopenplans.Somefortyyearsbeforehiscareerended,hisworkwasalreadyofrevolutionarysignificance.

{{B}}Set3{{/B}}{{B}}OrganicArchitecture{{/B}}Oneofthemoststrikingpersonalitiesinthedevelopmentofearly-twentiethcenturyarchitecturewasFrankLloydWright(1867-1959).WrightattendedtheUniversityofWisconsininMadisonbeforemovingtoChicago,whereheeventuallyjoinedthefirmheadedbyLouisSullivan.Wrightsetouttocreate"architectureofdemocracy".EarlyinfluenceswerethevolumetricshapesinasetofeducationalblockstheGermaneducatorFriedrichFroebeldesigned,theorganicunityofaJapanesebuildingWrightsawattheColumbianExpositioninChicagoin1893,andaJeffersonianbeliefinindividualismandpopulism.Alwaysabelieverinarchitectureas"natural"and"organic",Wrightsawitasservingfreeindividualswhohavetherighttomovewithinafreespace,envisionedasanonsymmetricaldesigninteractingspatiallywithitsnaturalsurroundings.Hesoughttodevelopanorganicunityofplanning,structure,materials,andsite.Wrightidentifiedtheprincipleofcontinuityasfundamentaltounderstandinghisviewoforganicunity:"Classicarchitecturewasallfixations.Nowwhynotletwalls,ceilings,floorsbecomeseenascomponentpartsofeachother?Thisideal,profoundinitsarchitecturalimplicationsIcalledcontinuity."Wrightmanifestedhisvigorousoriginalityearly,andby1900hehadarrivedatastyleandentirelystartedhisown.Inhisworkduringthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,hiscross-axialplanandhisfabricofcontinuousroofplanesandscreensdefinedanewdomesticarchitecture.WrightfullyexpressedtheseelementsandconceptsinRobieHouse,builtbetween1907and1909.LikeotherbuildingsintheChicagoareahedesignedataboutthesametime,thiswascalledaprairiehouse.Wrightconceivedthelong,sweepingground-hugginglines,unconfinedbyabruptwalllimits,asreachingouttowardandcapturingtheexpansivenessoftheplacegreatflatlands.Startingabandoningallsymmetry,thearchitecteliminatedafacade,extendedtheroofsfarbeyondthewalls,andallbutconcealedtheentrance.Wrightfilledthe"wandering"planoftheRobieHousewithintricatelyjoinedspaces(somelargeandopen,othersclosed),groupedfreelyaroundagreatcentralfireplace.(Hebelievedstronglyinthehearth'sage-olddomesticsignificance.)Wrightdesignedenclosedpatios,overhangingroofs,andstripwindowstoprovideunexpectedlightsourcesandglimpsesoftheoutdoorsaspeoplemovethroughtheinteriorspace.Theseelements,togetherwiththeopengroundplan,createasenseofspace-inmotioninsideandout.Hesetmassesandvoidsinequilibrium;theflowofinteriorspacedeterminedtheexteriorwallplacement.Theexterior'ssharpangularplanesmeetatapparentlyoddangles,matchingthecomplexplayofinteriorsolids,whichfunctionnotasinertcontainingsurfacesbutaselementsequivalentinroletothedesign'sspaces.TheRobieHouseisagoodexampleofWright's"naturalism",hisadjustingofabuildingtoitssite.However,inthisparticularcase,theconfinesofthecitylotconstrainedthebuilding-to-siterelationshipmorethandidthesitesofsomeofWright'smoreexpansivesuburbanandcountryhomes.TheKaufmannHouse,nicknameed"Fallingwater"anddesignedasaweekendretreatatBearRunnearPittsburghisastartprimeexampleofthelatter.Perchedonarockyhillsideoverasmallwaterfall,thisstructureextendstheRobieHouse'sblockymassesinallfourdirections.Thecontrastintexturesbetweenconcrete,paintedmetal,andnaturalstonesinitswallsenlivenitsshapes,asdoesWright'suseoffull-lengthstripwindowstocreateastunninginterweavingofinteriorandexteriorspace.TheimpliedmessageofWright'snewarchitecturewasspace,notmass—aspacedesignedtofitthepatron'slifeandenclosedanddividedasrequired.Wrighttookspecialpainstomeethisclient'srequirements,oftendesigningalltheaccessoriesofahouse.Inthelate1930s,heactedonacherisheddreamtoprovidegoodarchitecturaldesignforlessprosperouspeoplebyadaptingtheideasofhisprairiehousetoplansforsmaller,lessexpensivedwellings.ThepublicationofWright'splansbroughthimameasureoffameinEurope,especiallyinHollandandGermany.TheissuanceinBerlinin1910ofaportfolioofhisworkandanexhibitionofhisdesignsthefollowingyearstimulatedyoungerarchitectstoadoptsomeofhisideasaboutopenplans.Somefortyyearsbeforehiscareerended,hisworkwasalreadyofrevolutionarysignificance.

ORIGINS OF THE NATURE MOVEMENT 1 The nature preservation movement is based on the belief that we should respect the natural environment and work to protect it for others to enjoy. The movement had its origins in a nineteenth-century geological study of the American West. In 1871 the director of the United States Geological Survey invited a painter named Thomas Moran to join a government expedition that would explore the Yellowstone area of Wyoming. At that time, Yellowstone was largely unknown except for the tales of mysterious mud lakes and geysers. {{U}}Moran's role in the expedition was funded partly by the Northern Pacific Railroad, whose directors thought that an artist's images of Yellowstone might help create a new tourist destination{{/U}}. Besides Moran, the expedition included a photographer who provided an {{U}}objective{{/U}} record of Yellowstone's geothermal wonders. Moran's watercolors supplied the color the photographs could not, and the photographs confirmed the reality of Moran's strange sketches of geysers and steaming lakes. 2 The expedition was the {{U}}turning point{{/U}} in Thomas Moran's career. Lacking formal training, he was essentially self-taught, spending his early career copying the works of English landscape painters. Then the expedition allowed the artist to combine his personal vision with his public role as educator of a national audience. His watercolors of Yellowstone portrayed its {{U}}glorious{{/U}} features in a way that increased their emotional impact. Yet in the majestic Western landscape there were some scenes that neither a photograph nor a watercolor could adequately convey. One of these was the view down into the deep chasm of the Yellowstone River, toward the waterfall. As soon as Moran returned east, he painted the scene in oil from memory and imagination on an eight-by-fourteen-foot canvas. The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone became the first landscape by an American artist ever bought by the U.S. government. 3 Meanwhile, the expedition leader and the railroad had been lobbying Congress to set aside Yellowstone as a national park. To prove Yellowstone's uniqueness and beauty, Moran's watercolor sketches were displayed in the U.S. Capitol. In 1872, President Grant signed a law preserving the whole Yellowstone area, thirty-five hundred square miles, as the world's first national park. Artists rarely have such an immediate impact on the political process, and the accomplishment is a tribute to the passion of Moran's vision. 4 Another person who influenced the public's {{U}}perception{{/U}} of nature was the Canadian wildlife artist and writer Ernest Thompson Seton. During his long life as a naturalist, explorer, and educator, Seton promoted the idea that nature is something to be respected and preserved. He was a fascinating storyteller who wrote and illustrated over 60 books and several hundred articles and short stories. 5 Seton was born in England in 1860 and immigrated to Canada at the age of six. Active in art from an early age, at twenty-one he joined two older brothers on their farm in Manitoba, Canada. Seton was always interested in his natural surroundings and devoted much of his time to studying and drawing wild animals, sometimes counting every feather on the wing of a bird. Self-trained as a biologist, he started out as a naturalist and scientific illustrator for the government of Manitoba. Around the same time, he began writing as well. One of Seton's most popular and dramatic wilderness stories, "Lobo," told of his hunt for a legendary gray wolf in New Mexico. The story of Lobo was first published in a popular magazine, and later with other stories in book form as Wild Animals I Have Known. This book has never been out of print since it first appeared in 1898. Seton also wrote a series of magazine articles that taught children about nature, camping, hiking, and woodcraft. As a key {{U}}figure{{/U}} in the woodcraft movement and in the early history of the Boy Scouts of America, Seton inspired thousands of children to appreciate the natural world. 6 The enduring message of both Thomas Moran and Ernest Thompson Seton was that nature is beautiful, noble, and deserving of our respect and protection. They believed that people should become close with nature and educate others about it. The remarkable extent to which we have become a society of nature lovers can be attributed to their vision and influence.

Listentopartofalectureinabiologyclass.Nowgetreadytoanswerthequestions.Youmayuseyournotestohelpyouanswer.