ListentopartofalectureinaEuropeanhistoryclass.Nowgetreadytoanswerthequestions.Youmayuseyournotestohelpyouanswer.

{{B}}Set4{{/B}}{{B}}TheCuttingEdge{{/B}}Economistsandgovernmentsagreethesedaysonthecrucialimportanceofforeigndirectinvest-ment(FDI).Theyseeitbothastheglobalmarket's"sealofapproval"onacountry'spoliciesandprospects,andasaforce,especiallyindevelopingcountries,forfar-reachingeconomicchange.ThisconsensusissurprisingwhenyourememberthatFDIremainspoliticallysensitiveinmanypoor,andsomenot-so-poor,countries.Butthebenefitsaresogreatthatreservationsonthisaccounthavebeenputaside.ThepointaboutFDIisthatitisfarmorethanmere"capital":itisauniquelypotentbundleofcapital,contacts,andmanagerialandtechnologicalknowledge.Itisthecuttingedgeofglobalization.TheoutlookforFDI-intotal,andcountrybycountry--isthereforeamatterofgreatinterest.Forecastingit,however,isfarfromeasy.Thedeterminantsarecomplicated,andnotalwayssusceptibletomeasurement.Uptonow,sofarasthiscolumnisaware,detailedforecastshavenotbeenattempted.Inareportpublishedthisweek,theEconomistIntelligenceUnit(EIU),asistercompanyofTheEconomist,hasventuredintothisunchartedterritory.ItprovidesaforecastforFDIextendingto2005fornofewerthan60countries(accountingforvirtuallyalloftheworld'sactualandprojectedflowsofFDI).ThemaindifficultyarisesfromthefactthatFDIdependscloselyonwhattheEIUcallsthebusinessenvironment--anecessarilybroadtermthatincludes,onthefirm'sdefinition,70separateindicators.Someofthesearepolitical,andtotheextentthattheycanbemeasuredatallhavetobegaugedthroughsurveysthataskinvestorsquestionssuchas,"Isthequalityofthebureaucracyanditsabilitytocarryoutgovernmentpolicyveryhigh,high,moderate,loworverylow?"Itisonethingtocompilethiskindofevidenceintoabackward-lookingaggregatewhichcanthenbetestedforitsabilitytoexplainpastmovementsinFDI.Itisquiteanothertouseitforforecasting-becausetodothattheresearcherhastopredicthowpoliticalandotherconditionswillchange.Thereisnoalternativebuttoblendtogetherdifferentkindsofinformation.First,takewhateverevidenceeconometricscanyieldaboutthewaytheforcesdriving,FDI--sizeofhost-countrymarket,expectedgrowth,inputcosts,geographyandnaturalresources,andthepolicyframework--haveworkedinthepast.Next,addconventionalforecastsofrelevanteconomicaggregates.Third,unavoidably,makemorequalitativeandspeculativeassessmentsofchangesinother,"non-economic",conditions.Allthisthestudytriestodo.Itisacademicallyimpure,becauseithastobe.Buttheworkingsandthesupportinginformationareinplainview,andtheresultsareveryinteresting.GlobalFDIflowsareprojectedtoshrinkmarkedlythisyear,from＄1.1trillionin2000tolessthan＄800billion.AlmostallofthereductionisforecasttobeinFDItorichcountries,drivenbytheslowdowninAmericaandbythediminishingpaceofmergersandacquisitions(whichareaprincipaldriverofFDIinthedevelopedeconomies).FDItopoorcountriesmerelypauses,ataround＄220billion.Insubsequentyears,flowsrecoveracrosstheboard,butgrowthinflowstopoorcountriescontinuestooutpace,modestly,growthinflowstorichones.Bythen,theglobalstockofFDIwillhaverisentomorethan＄10trillion,accordingtothereport,fromlessthan＄6trillionlastyear.TheUnitedStates,unsurprisingly,isexpectedtodominatetherankingsin2001-2005,muchasitdoestoday,accountingformorethan25%ofglobalinflows.TheanalysisshowsthatAmerica'sbusinessenvironmentisaboutasgoodasonewouldinfer,statisticallyspeaking,fromitsincome.Britain,incontrast,isoneof14countrieswithasomewhatbetterbusinessenvironmentthanitsincomewouldleadyoutoexpect(or,toputitlesskindly,withalowerincomethanitsbusinessenvironmentwouldleadyoutoexpect).Britainisexpectedtoremaintheworld'ssecond-biggestrecipientofFDI,accountingformorethan9%ofthetotalin2001-2005.IntermsofFDIperhead,Britaincurrentlyranksseventh,behind(indescendingorder)Ireland,Belgium,HongKongSAR,Sweden,SingaporeandtheNetherlands.Onthismeasure,theUnitedStatesranksfourteenth.Thestudy'smostencouragingfindingisthatscoresforbusinessenvironmentarerisingalmosteverywhere.FDIisacompetitiveundertaking,butnotazero-sumgame:risingscoresforbusinessenvironmentdrivethetotalshigher.Comparing2001-2005with1996-2000,theEIUmarksdownonlytwoeconomies,HongKongSARandMalaysia,andinneithercasebyenoughtoaltertheoverallassessment--"verygood"forHongKongSARand"good"forMalaysia.Thailand,Poland,HungaryandMexicoareamongthoseexpectedtomoveintheotherdirection,from"moderate"to"good",likewiseGermany,DenmarkandFrancefrom"good"to"verygood".

Ceratopsia Ceratopsia thrived in North America and Asia during the Cretaceous Period (about 146 to 65.5 million years ago). Their name means "horned face" and indeed many of them did feature bony horns projecting from their skulls. ■(A) The horns may look quite predatory, but Ceratopsians were herbivores1, so their horns were defensive in nature and may have been used to enforce order in the group. ■(B) Not all Ceratopsians had horns, but all had beaklike mouths. ■(C) The fossil record has revealed three distinct families among Ceratopsia: Psittacosaurids, Protoceratopsids, and Ceratopsids. Triceratops, a member of the Ceratopsid family, is probably the best known species of Ceratopsia. With its facial horns and neck display, it exhibits many of the features commonly associated with this dinosaur group. ■(D) However, there are species of Ceratopsia that are quite different from the familiar Triceratops. The Psittacosaurids comprise the Psittacosaurus genus2 and the Hongshanosaurus genus. Although not much fossil data are available for Hongshanosaurus, comparisons with Psittacosaurus can be made. Evidence indicates that both were roughly deer-sized bipeds dwelling in East Asia. Hongshanosaurus had beak points on both upper and lower jaws, while only the upper jaw of Psittacosaurus was pointed. Much more fossil evidence is available for Psittacosaurus species. At least one species had long quills along its back and tail. Researchers speculate these quills were used for display during mating or fighting. As early Ceratopsians, the Psittacosaurids had many anatomical features that would show up in similar or interestingly modified forms in later species, but none of the Psittacosaurids had the neck frills or facial horns that came to be associated with the Ceratopsians. Although their name suggests that the Protoceratopsids were the first of this dinosaur group to have horned faces, they, in fact, lacked the well-developed horns of later species. While they more closely resembled the Ceratopsids on the whole, they were still relatively small and hornless. Protoceratops, a six-foot-long quadrupedal herbivore, is a representative Protoceratopsid. Fossil examples found in China and Mongolia show that it had a turtle-like beak and a neck frill, a version of which would show up among the more familiar Ceratopsids. While Protoceratops did have some knobby points on its skull, the points only slightly hinted at the impressive horns that appeared on the Ceratopsids. With the arrival of Triceratops and other advanced Ceratopsids, Ceratopsia reached new levels of sophistication, variety, and size. All Ceratopsid fossils have been found in western North America and reveal that they were quadrupedal herbivores with beaked jaw tips and rows of teeth specialized for shearing. The family featured a remarkable array of horns, neck frills, and spines. These neck frills, manifesting in various shapes and sizes, probably were too thin to be practical as a defense against predator species, and researchers speculate that they were used during mating displays, for anchoring jaw muscles, for regulating body temperature, or for a combination of these purposes. Most Ceratopsids had two long brow horns and a short horn on the nasal ridge. Because the Ceratopsids were vegetarian and fairly large (up to 30 feet long and 10 feet tall), researchers think that the horns, along with the neck frills, largely served functions of competition, whether in displays or combat. Moreover, since intraspecific conflicts often are tests of strength rather than fights to the death, thin neck frills may have been sturdy enough to provide some protection during such confrontations. There is evidence of Ceratopsian species that do not neatly fall into the familial categories as described. While these species appear closely related to Ceratopsia, they tend to be smaller and more primitive. Researchers have debated over recognizing a distinctly new Ceratopsian family or grouping these misfit species with an existing family. Psittacosaurids, Protoceratopsids, and Ceratopsids are the commonly accepted Ceratopsian families with established member species and defined characteristics. Despite some controversies over minor species, a view of the Ceratopsian families is a view of fascinating adaptations and development in a unique dinosaur group.

RisingSeaLevelsPerhapsthemostpervasiveclimaticeffectofglobalwarmingisrapidescalationoficemelt.MountKilimanjaroinAfrica,portionsoftheSouthAmericanAndes,andtheHimalayaswillverylikelylosemostoftheirglacialicewithinthenexttwodecades,affectinglocalwaterresources.GlacialicecontinuesitsretreatinAlaska.NASAscientistsdeterminedthatGreenland'sicesheetisthinningbyabout1mperyear.Theadditionalmeltwater,especiallyfromcontinentalicemassesandglaciers,isaddingtoariseinsealevelworldwide.Satelliteremotesensingismonitoringglobalsealevel,seaice,andcontinentalice.Worldwidemeasurementsconfirmthatsealevelroseduringthelastcentury.SurroundingthemarginsofAntarctica,andconstitutingabout11%ofitssurfacearea,arenumerousiceshelves,especiallywhereshelteringinletsorbaysexist.Coveringmanythousandsofsquarekilometers,theseiceshelvesextendovertheseawhilestillattachedtocontinentalice.Thelossoftheseiceshelvesdoesnotsignificantlyraisesealevel,fortheyalreadydisplaceseawater.Theconcernisforthepossiblesurgeofgroundedcontinentalicethattheiceshelvesholdbackfromthesea.Althoughiceshelvesconstantlybreakuptoproduceicebergs,somelargesectionshaverecentlybrokenfree.In1998aniceberg(150kmby35km)brokeofftheRonneIceShelf,southeastoftheAntarcticPeninsula.InMarch2000anicebergtaggedB-15brokeofftheRossIceShelf(some90°longitudewestoftheAntarcticPeninsula),measuring300kmby40kin.Since1993,sixiceshelveshavedisintegratedinAntarctica.About8,000kmoficeshelfaregone,changingmaps,freeingupislandstocircumnavigation,andcreatingthousandsoficebergs.TheLarsenIceShelf,alongtheeastcoastoftheAntarcticPeninsula,hasbeenretreatingslowlyforyears.Larsen-Asuddenlydisintegratedin1995.Inonly35daysinearly2002,Larsen-Bcollapsedintoicebergs.Thisicelossislikelyaresultofthe2.5℃temperatureincreaseintheregioninthelast50years.Inresponsetotheincreasingwarmth,theAntarcticPeninsulaissportingnewvegetationgrowth,previouslynotseenthere.Alossofpolaricemass,augmentedbymeltingofalpineandmountainglaciers(whichexperiencedmorethana30%decreaseinoverallicemassduringthelastcentury)willaffectsea-levelrise.TheIPCCassessmentstatesthat"betweenone-thirdtoone-halfoftheexistingmountainglaciermasscoulddisappearoverthenexthundredyears".Also,"thereisconclusiveevidenceforaworldwiderecessionofmountainglaciers...ThisisamongtheclearestandbestevidenceforachangeinenergybalanceattheEarth'ssurfacesincetheendofthe19thcentury."Sea-levelrisemustbeexpressedasarangeofvaluesthatareunderconstantreassessment.The2001IPCCforecastforglobalmeansea-levelrisethiscentury,givenregionalvariations,isfrom0.11～0.88m.Themedianvalueof0.48mistwotofourtimestherateofpreviousincrease.Theseincreaseswouldcontinuebeyond2100evenifgreenhousegasconcentrationsarestabilized.TheScrippsInstituteofOceanographyinLaJolla,California,haskeptoceantemperaturerecordssince1916.Significanttemperatureincreasesarebeingrecordedtodepthsofmorethan300masoceantemperaturerecordsareset.Eventhewarmingoftheoceanitselfwillcontributeabout25%ofsea-levelrise,simplybecauseofthermalexpansionofthewater.Inaddition,anychangeinoceantemperaturehasaprofoundeffectonweatherand,indirectly,onagricultureandsoilmoisture.Infacttheoceansystemappearstohavedelayedsomesurfaceglobalwarmingduringthepastcenturythroughabsorptionofexcessatmosphericheat.Aquicksurveyofworldcoastlinesshowsthatevenamoderaterisecouldbringchangesofunparalleledproportions.Atstakearetheriverdeltas,lowlandcoastalfarmingvalleys,andlow-lyingmainlandareas,allcontendingwithhighwater,hightides,andhigherstormsurges.Particularlytragicsocialandeconomicconsequenceswillaffectsmallislandstates--beingabletoadjustwithintheirpresentcountryboundaries,disruptionofbiologicalsystems,lossofbiodiversity,reductioninwaterresources,amongtheimpacts.Therecouldbebothinternalandinternationalmigrationofaffectedhumanpopulations,spreadoverdecades,aspeoplemoveawayfromcoastalfloodingfromthesea-levelrise.

{{B}}Set3{{/B}}{{B}}TheEvolutionofthePhotofit{{/B}}Securitytechnology:Anewtypeofcomputerisedphotofitsystemtakesanovelevolutionaryapproachtogeneratingimagesofsuspects.Ifyouhaveevertriedtodescribesomeone'sfaceindetail,youwillunderstandwhythe"photofit"compositeimagesusedbythepolicelooksododgy.Inrecentyears,computerised"E-Fit"systemshavehelpedimprovetheaccuracyoftheseimagesbyallowingwitnessestochoosefromawiderrangeoffacialfeatures.ButresearchersattheUniversityofStirlinginScotlandfoundthat,despitetheseimprovements,peoplestillhaveahardtimeconstructingrecognisablefaces--especiallyifthereisadelayofmoreTheproblemisthatpeopletendtorecoguisefacesaswholeentities,ratherthanasseparatefeatures.Sopickingfromarangeofeyes,nosesandmouthsisnotnecessarilythemostsuitableapproach,saysCharlieFrowd,apsychologistattheUniversityofStifling.Nextyear,however,Britishpoliceareexpectedtobegintrialsofanewcomputerisedsystem,calledEvoFIT,developedbyDr.FrowdandhiscolleaguePeterHancock.Itusesanevolutionaryapproach,knownasageneticalgorithm,to"evolve"facesratherthanpiecethemtogether."Theprocessisentirelynon-verbalandtakesafractionofthenormaltime,"claimsDr.Frowd.Awitnessisshownanarrayof60differentfaceswithrandomfeatures.Havingstudiedthemclosely,thewitnessisaskedtochoosethesiximagesthatmostcloselyresemblethepersontheyaretryingtodescribe.Thesesixarethenusedtogenerateanothersetof60,byswitchingfeatureesbetweensomeoftheimagesandbymakingrandomchangestoothers.Thewitnessisthenaskedtorepeatthetask,whereuponanewbatchoffacesisgenerated,andsoon.Inevolutionaryterms,thisprocessisknownas"geneticcrossoverandmutation",andisapowerfulwaytosearchalargenumberofpossibilitiesforaparticularsolution.Byallowingtheusertosteertheselectionprocess,theprogramisabletogenerateagoodlikenessfortheoriginalfaceafterjustafewcycles.Inoneofitsearlyversions,EvoFITwasusedbypoliceinNorthamptonshirewhoweretryingtocatchaviolentattacker.Theattackerwasnevercaught,buttheseniorinvestigatingofficer,SuperintendentPaulSpick,saysthewitnessinvolvedfoundthenewsoftwaremuchquickerandeasiertousethantraditionalE-Fitsystems.Itwasalsomoreaccurate:thefinalimagecausedthewitnessvisibledistresswhendisplayed.AfurtherimportantadvantageofEvoFITovertraditionalcompositesisthatanimagecanbegeneratedevenifthewitnesscanonlyprovideasketchyverbaldescription.TheresearchershavesincemadeanumberoffurtherimprovementstotheirsystemandarenowintheprocessofcommercializingitinpartnershipwithABM,aBritishfirmwhichsuppliespoliceforceswithphotofit,oneoftheleadingcomputerizedcompositesystems.Theimagesaremorerealistic,andthesystemcangeneratethree-quarterangleviewsoftheface,whichareeasiertodistinguishthandirectfrontalviews,saysDr.Frowd.Histeamhasalsofoundthatbycombiningtheimagesgeneratedbydifferentwitnesses,orevenfromasinglewitness,itispossibletogetanevenbetterlikeness.Thiscouldbeparticularlyusefulwhenmultiplewitnessescomeforwardandthepoliceareunsurewhichoftheimagestheyproduceisthemostaccurate.Inthelatestversion,witnessesaregivenaselectionoffaceshapestochoosefrombeforefacialfeaturesareadded.Thismakesitlesslikelythatthecorrectfacialfeatureswillberejectedsimplybecausetheyareonthewrong-shapedface.Thesemodificationsappeartomakeallthedifference.Inrecentexperiments,Dr.FrowdandDr.HancockcomparedEvoFITwiththecomputerizedsystemscurrentlyinusebyaskingvolunteerstoconstructanimageofafacetwodaysafterseeingit,andthenshowingtheresultingimagetopeoplewhowerefamiliarwiththepersondepicted.Withtraditionalcomposites,thepersonwascorrectlyidentifiedabout4%ofthetime;thefigureroseto25%withEvoFITimages.NextyearABMwillperforminhouseevaluationsofthesystemandwillthenteamupwithpoliceforcesforfurthertrials.Althoughthingslookpromisingsofar,twothingsinparticularneedfurthertesting,saysLeslieBowie,ABM'sdirectorofresearch.DotheEvoFITimagesdistractwitnessesorcontaminatetheirmemoriesofthefacetheyaretryingtorecall?AndwhileEvoFIThasperformedwellinthecalmconditionsofthelaboratory,howwillitcopewithreal-lifewitnesses,whoareoftentraumatizedbytheirexperiences?Ifitcanaddressthesetwoquestions,EvoFITcouldbethenextstepintheevolutionofthephotofit.

Lake Titicaca Two nations, Peru and Bolivia, share the shoreline of South America"s largest freshwater lake, Lake Titicaca. [■] The lake, approximately 122 miles long and 35 miles wide, has a surface area of almost 10,000 square kilometers, an average depth of between 140 and 180 meters (460 and 600 feet), and is located 3,800 meters above sea level high in the Andes Mountains in the plateau region known as the Altiplano. [■] Located between snow-capped peaks , Lake Titicaca is the highest commercially navigable lake in the world. [■] The origin of the lake"s name is unknown and the local people refer to the lake by several names, but Lake Titicaca"s name translates as "stone puma" because the lake"s shape is similar to the shape of a puma hunting a rabbit. [■] ? Ancient Andean cultures established civilizations around the area of Lake Titicaca because of the rich agricultural soil and fresh glacial waters. Ruins, visible on shore and on the islands, confirm the existence of some of the oldest, highly civilized peoples in South America who pre-dated the Christian era. Forty-one islands rise up from Lake Titicaca, some of them having provided homes for the indigenous peoples. Some of the islands are made from reeds which grow along the shores of the lake. According to one legend the sun god, Inti, sent his son and daughter down from the heavens to improve the lives of the ancient Andean people. The children landed on the largest island, referred to as Sun Island, and founded the Inca civilization. Another legend reports that the sun god"s children rose from the lake to establish the Inca empire. Regardless of which legend is believed, Lake Titicaca has remained a holy, sacred lake for the Andean people. Sun Island, one possible location for the founding of the Inca civilization, is also known as Titicaca Island and belongs to the country of Bolivia. Some of the other islands in the lake are part of Peruvian territory. The Uros, a group of indigenous peoples, fled the Incas and retreated to one of the nine islands in the lake which were made of reeds. Approximately three hundred descendents of the ancient Uros continue to live on the artificial islands made of floating totora reeds. They maintain the islands by continually adding fresh totora reeds to the tops of the island to replace those reeds which rot away from the bottom. The Uros build their homes of reeds and travel in reed rafts today just as the original inhabitants did centuries ago. They also craft items from reeds and sell them to tourists. Another indigenous group, well-known for high quality hand-woven textiles, lives on another reed island. ? The shores of Lake Titicaca are densely populated. The Aymara people comprise another ancient civilization and live in the Bolivian Altiplano and Titicaca Basin. It is notable that they farm on stepped terraces, use farming methods that pre-date the Incas, and grow barley, potatoes, and other grains. Grains which are grown at the high altitudes of the Altiplano are not used for human consumption because the grain does not ripen. The stalks, however, serve as forage for animals such as llamas and alpacas. ? Reports of sunken treasure have excited diving expeditions for several years. Legends explain that when the Spanish arrived in Peru, the Incas removed an enormous gold chain from a temple and threw it into the lake. The chain has never been found but divers have explored portions of the lake in hopes of recovering treasures reported to exist. International archaeologists have discovered the ruins of an ancient temple, road, wall, a terrace, and pottery. When Jacques Cousteau explored portions of the lake bottom in 1973, his expedition team found numerous giant frogs which weighed approximately two pounds and were about two feet long. These bottom dweller frogs, with their wrinkly skin, were found to be able to survive the harsh, high altitude because they could absorb oxygen directly from the frigid waters through their skin. When a Cousteau expedition "returned several years later they discovered possible remains of a city lying under the lake"s waters and found the frog population diminished." ? Today, tourists enjoy the settlements along the shores and on the islands of Lake Titicaca, and people travel between Bolivia and Peru by boat. The Bolivian military has also utilized the lake to maintain an active navy despite the fact the country is landlocked. Glossary plateau: an elevated and fairly level expanse of land altiplano: a high plateau alpaca: a domesticated south American mammal landlocked: surrounded by or almost entirely by land

BLACKHOLES1Nothinginthehistoryofmodernastronomyhasexcitedasmuchspeculationastheobject,orevent,knownasablackhole.Blackholeshaveprovidedendlessimaginative{{U}}fodder{{/U}}forsciencefictionwritersandendlesstheoretical{{U}}fodder{{/U}}forastrophysicists.Theyareoneofthemoreexoticmanifestationsofthetheoryofgeneralrelativity,andtheirfascinationliesinthewaytheirtremendousgravityaffectsnearbyspaceandtime.2Ablackholeisverysimpleinstructure:ithasasurface--theeventhorizon--andacenter--thesingularity.Everythingelseisgravity.Thestandardmodelfortheformationofablackholeinvolvesthecollapseofalargestar.Theimaginarysphericalsurfacesurroundingthecollapsedstaristheeventhorizon--anartificialboundaryinspacethatmarksapointofnoreturn.Outsidetheeventhorizon,gravityisstrongbut{{U}}finite{{/U}},anditispossibleforobjectstobreakfreeofitspull.However,oncewithintheeventhorizon,anobjectwouldneedtotravelfasterthanlighttoescape.3Forextremelymassivestars,theexclusionprinciple--theresistancebetweenthemolecularparticleswithinthestarastheyarecompressed--willnotbestrongenoughtooffsetthegravitygeneratedbythestar'sownmass.Thestar'sincreasingdensitywilloverwhelmtheexclusionprinciple.Whatfollowsis{{U}}runaway{{/U}}gravitationalcollapse.Withnointernalforcetostopit,thestarwillsimplycontinuetocollapseinonitself.Onceacollapsingstarhascontractedthroughitseventhorizon,nothingcanstopitfromcollapsingfurtheruntilitsentiremassiscrusheddowntoasinglepoint--apointofinfinitedensityandzerovolume--thesingularity.4Thestarnowdisappearsfromtheperceivableuniverse,like{{U}}acartooncharacter{{/U}}thatjumpsintoaholeandpullstheholeinafterhim.{{U}}Whatthisprocessleavesbehindisadifferentkindofhole--aprofounddisturbanceinspace-time,aregionwheregravityissointensethatnothingcanescapefromit{{/U}}.Anyobjectfallingwithintheboundaryofablackholehasnochoicebuttomoveinwardtowardthesingularityanddisappearfromouruniverseforever.Moreover,ablackholecanneverbepluggeduporfilledinwithmatter;themorematterthatispouredintoablackhole,thebiggeritgets.5Whatwouldhappentoobjects,suchasastronauts,astheyvanishedintoablackhole?Physicistshavebeenamusingthemselveswiththisquestionforyears,andmostbelievethattheintensegravitationalforceswouldripaparttheastronautslongbeforetheywerecrushedatthesingularity.Theoretically,anyastronautswhomanagedtosurvivethepassagewouldencountersomeverystrangethings.Forinstance,theywouldexperienceacutetimedistortion,whichwouldenablethemtoknow,inafewbriefseconds,theentirefutureoftheuniverse.6Insideablackhole,spaceandtimearesowarpedthatthedistancefromtheeventhorizontothesingularityisnotadistanceinspaceinthenormalsensethatwecanmeasureinkilometers.Instead,itbecomesadistanceintime.Thetimeittakestoreachthesingularityfromtheeventhorizon--asmeasuredbysomeonefallingin--isproportionaltothemassoftheblackhole.7Theonlywaythatastronautswouldknowwhethertheyhadcrossedtheeventhorizonwouldbeiftheytriedtohalttheirfallandclimboutagainbyfiringtheirenginesenoughtopushthemselvesbackfromthecenterofthehole.However,becauseofthetimewarp,iftheastronautstriedtodothis,theywouldreachthesingularityfasterthaniftheyhadlefttheirenginesoff.Moreover,sincetheycouldgetnofartheroncetheyhadreachedthesingularity,thispointwouldmarktheendoftimeitself.

TheRosettaStoneThingswerenotgoingwellforPtolemyV,kingofEgyptinthesecondcenturyB.C.Hewasnotoneoftheall-powerfulEgyptianpharaohswhohadruledformanycenturies.TheyoungkingwasoneofthePtolemaicpharaohswhowereofGreekheritage,descendantsofarulerputinplacebyAlexandertheGreatwhenheconqueredEgyptinthefourthcenturyB.C.ThereignofPtolemyVwasatimeofcivilunrestandforeignincurious,andthekingwasunpopular.Itwastimeforapublic-relationscampaign.Thepriestsofthekingwroteashorthistoryoftheking'sfamily,describedhisaccomplishments,andexplainedhisfutureplans.ThismessagewaswrittenonstonetabletsindemoticEgyptianforthecommonpeople,inEgyptianhieroglyphsforthepriests,andinGreekfortherulingclass.Thus,itwaswrittenintwolanguagesbutinthreescripts.ThesetabletswerepostedalloverEgypt.Almosttwothousandyearslater,in1799,theFrencharmy,ledbyNapoleonBonaparte,wasoccupyingEgypt.Severalyearsearlier,Napoleon'sarmyhaddefeatedtheBritisharmynearCairoandhadtakenoverthecountry.However,theBritishfleethaddestroyedtheFrenchnavyandtherewasnowayfortheFrenchsoldierstoreturnhome.Duringthis"extendedvacation",Frenchmilitaryengineersstrengthenedexistingdefensivepositions.IntheporttownofRosetta(nowknownasEI-Rashid),theFrenchwererebuildinganoldfortwhenCaptainPierre-FrancoisBoucharddiscoveredanirregularlyshapedslabmadeofdarkgranite(oftenmisidentifiedasbasalt)withthreetypesofwritingsonitinthreedistinctbands.Besidesmilitaryforces,Napoleonhadalsobroughtscientistsandscholarswithhim.TheRosettaStone,asitbecameknown,wasturnedovertothem.Theyquicklyrealizedthatthethreescriptscontainedthesamemessage.TheytranslatedtheGreekquicklybutcouldnotunderstandtheothertwoscripts.In1801,theFrenchwereforcedtosurrender.UnderthetermsoftheTreatyofAlexandria,theBritishclaimedtheartifactsthattheFrenchhadfoundduringtheiroccupation.TheFrenchtriedtosmuggletheRosettaStoneoutofEgyptinasmallboatbutfailed.ThestonewasbroughttoLondonandpresentedtotheBritishMuseum.Onthebackofthestoneisthepaintedmessage,"CapturedbytheBritishArmyinEgyptin1801".ItwasthroughtheRosettaStonethatscholarslearnedhowtoreadEgyptianhieroglyphs.Thehieroglyphicalphabet,oneoftheearliestwritingsystemseverdeveloped,hadbeenusedbytheEgyptiansfor3,500years.However,itisfarmorecomplexthansimplepicturewritingandcontainsthousandsofsymbols.AfterEgyptwasconqueredbytheRomans,Latinbecamethedominantlanguage,andbythefourthcenturyA.D.,noonecouldunderstandthesymbols.BeforetheRosettaStonewasdiscovered,somescholarsevenbelievedthathieroglyphswerenotreallyanalphabetbutweremerelydecorations.CopiesoftheRosettaStoneweresentbytheBritishMuseumtolinguistsalloverEurope,butlearningwhichGreekwordrepresentedwhichhieroglyphproveddifficult.ItwasthebrilliantFrenchlinguistJeanFrancoisChampollionwhofinallyunlockedthemystery.HebeganstudyingtheRosettaStoneattheageof18.Afterfourteenyears,hedecipheredthecode.InalettertotheFrenchRoyalAcademyofInscriptions,heexplainedthethreebasicassumptionsthatledtoatranslation:(1)TheCopticEgyptianlanguage,stillspokenbyasmallgroupofEgyptians,wasthefinalstageoftheancientEgyptianlanguage.ChampollioncouldconsultwithexpertsonCopticEgyptiantolearnaboutPtolemaicEgyptian.(2)Hieroglyphsservednotonlyassymbolsofwordsandideas(ideograms)butalsoassymbolsofspokensounds(phonograms).(3)Certainhieroglyphsenclosedinovalswerephonetictranscriptionsofpharaohs'names.Oncethesehieroglyphswereunderstood,itwaseasiertodeciphertherest.ArmedwithChampollion'stranslation,scholarsallovertheworldtookanewinterestinEgyptandlaidthefoundationforourunderstandingofthisancientcivilization.TheRosettaStoneisstilldisplayedattheBritishMuseumandisoneofthemostpopularexhibitsthere,buttheEgyptiangovernmentwantsitback.In2003,Dr.ZahiHawass,directoroftheSupremeCouncilofAntiquitiesinCairoandanotedarchaeologisthimself,formallyrequesteditsreturn,saying,"TheBritish...shouldvolunteertoreturnthestonebecauseitistheiconofourEgyptianidentity."Glossary:demotic:describingaformofalanguagethatisspokenbyordinarypeoplehieroglyphs:symbolsusedinancientEgypttorepresentwordsorsounds

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Whatisthemainpurposeoftheconversation?

DRAMA IN ANCIENT GREECE 1 Long before the ancient Greeks could read and write, they learned of their history and culture through epic poetry chanted by bards or singers. The bards chanted stories in standard musical phrases that were accompanied by musical instruments such as the lyre, a general name for any of several stringed instruments favored by the bards. The greatest bard, Homer, was a poet, singer and master of the lyre. According to tradition, Homer was a wandering minstrel who traveled from place to place chanting stories of gods and heroes. Another famous poet, singer, and lyre player was Sappho, who started a school for girls, where she taught the arts of music, poetry, and dance. 2 Greek civilization reached a golden age during the fifth century BC, when politics, philosophy, art, architecture, and theater thrived, as they never had before. As the Greeks took new pride in human achievements, they developed ideals of beauty, order, balance, and moderation throughout their culture, particularly in music and drama. Originating in the tradition of the bards, the earliest drama was associated with the worship of the god Dionysus and was an outgrowth of the choral songs and dances performed in the god"s honor. The famous outdoor Theater of Dionysus in Athens illustrated the importance of drama to the Greeks. It was situated on a hillside to take advantage of the natural slope and light, and it could accommodate an audience of 30,000 people. An image of Dionysus was carried in to watch every performance. A chorus of singers, dancers, and musicians, led by a singer who stood on steps above them, performed stories of mythic heroes that educated and entertained the audience while also honoring the god. 3 The crucial innovation that turned choral performance into drama is attributed to Thespis, a poet who is said to have originated tragedy. As the chorus sang the story of a hero or god, Thespis would enter the theater as a masked actor. Between songs, he recited verses as a character in the story, and these spoken verses changed what had been a choral monologue into a dialogue between the actor and the chorus. The legacy of Thespis can be seen in the term "thespian," which now describes anything relating to drama. 4 Actors of that time wore a large mask made of linen or cork, inside which was a device like a speaking trumpet to amplify the voice. When the actor recited, it was in an exalted monotone, often to the accompaniment of flutes. The chorus enhanced the tragedy with various dances and songs, generally accompanied by the lyre. The actor chanted the lines of the lead character, while the chorus sang the narrative passages. Still, despite the attention the actor received, the chorus and its music continued to dominate dramatic performances with the combined power of singing and dancing. 5 Like Thespis, the playwright Aeschylus acted in his own plays, but he added a second masked actor. Now audience attention could be directed to the interplay between the two actors—action and reaction, question and answer, conflict or cooperation—rather than between the actor and chorus. A later playwright, Sophocles, added a third actor. This made possible not only three-way dramatic scenes but also plays with a large cast of characters, since the masks allowed an actor to play more than one part in different scenes. The addition of actors shifted the focus of drama away from the chorus toward the action and dialogue of the characters. The chorus provided narrative links and commentary. 6 Playwrights continued to introduce innovations, but essentially they adhered to prescribed conventions. One of these conventions limited the number of scenes in a play to five. The drama always took place in one location and within a short span of time, sometimes a single day. Another convention reflected the society"s sense of balance and order: bloody deeds rarely took place in front of the audience. Therefore, murders, suicides, and other acts of violence occurred offstage. The Greek concept of moderation is reflected in still another convention, in which any character who acted in an excess of passion was usually punished in the story.

Reading4"MigrationfromAsia"TheAsianmigrationhypothesisistodaysupportedbymostofthescientificevidence.Thefirst"hard"datalinkingAmericanIndianswithAsiansappearedinthe1980swiththefindingthatIndiansandnortheastAsiansshareacommonanddistinctivepatterninthearrangementoftheteeth.Butperhapsthemostcompellingsupportforthehypothesiscomesfromgeneticresearch.StudiescomparingtheDNAvariationofpopulationsaroundtheworldconsistentlydemonstratetheclosegeneticrelationshipofthetwopopulations,andrecentlygeneticistsstudyingavirussequesteredinthekidneysofallhumansfoundthatthestrainofviruscarriedbyNavajosandJapaneseisnearlyidentical,whilethatcarriedbyEuropeansandAfricansisquitedifferent.→Themigrationcouldhavebegunoveralandbridgeconnectingthecontinents.DuringthelastIceAge70,000to10,000yearsago,hugeglacierslockedupmassivevolumesofwaterandsealevelswereasmuchas300feetlowerthantoday.AsiaandNorthAmericawerejoinedbyahugesubcontinentoficefree,treelessgrassland,750mileswide.GeologistshavenamedthisareaBeringia,fromtheBeringStraits.Summerstherewerewarm,winterswerecold,dryandalmostsnow-free.Thiswasaperfectenvironmentforlargemammals—mammothandmastodon,bison,horse,reindeer,camel,andsaiga(agoatlikeantelope).SmallbandsofStoneAgehunter-gathererswereattractedbytheseanimalpopulations,whichprovidedthemnotonlywithfoodbutwithhidesforclothingandshelter,dungforfuel,andbonesfortoolsandweapons.Accompaniedbyahusky-likespeciesofdog,huntingbandsgraduallymovedasfareastastheYukonRiverbasinofnorthernCanada,wherefieldexcavationshaveuncoveredthefossilizedjawbonesofseveraldogsandbonetoolsestimatedtobeabout27,000yearsold.→OtherevidencesuggeststhatthemigrationfromAsiabeganabout30,000yearsago—aroundthesametimethatJapanandScandinaviawerebeingsettled.Thisevidenceisbasedonbloodtype.ThevastmajorityofmodernNativeAmericanshavetypeObloodandafewhavetypeA,butalmostnonehavetypeB.BecausemodernAsianpopulationsincludeallthreebloodtypes,however,themigrationsmusthavebegunbeforetheevolutionoftypeB,whichgeneticistsbelieveoccurredabout30,000yearsago.By25,000yearsagohumancommunitieswereestablishedinwesternBeringia,whichispresent-dayAlaska.ButaccesstothesouthwasblockedbyahugeglacialsheetcoveringmuchofwhatistodayCanada.Howdidthehuntersgetoverthose2,000milesofdeepice?TheargumentisthattheclimatebegantowarmwiththepassingoftheIceAge,andabout13,000B.C.E.glacialmeltingcreatedanice-freecorridoralongtheeasternfrontrangeoftheRockyMountains.SoonhuntersofbiggamehadreachedtheGreatPlains.→Inthepastseveralyears,however,newarchaeologicalfindsalongthePacificcoastofNorthandSouthAmericahavethrownthistheoryintoquestion.Themostspectacularfind,atMonteVerdeinsouthernChile,producedstrikingevidenceoftoolmaking,housebuilding,rockpainting,andhumanfootprintsconservativelydatedat12,500yearsago,tongbeforethehighwayhadbeenclearedofice.Manyarchaeologistsnowbelievethatmigrantsmovedsouthinboatsalongacoastalrouteratherthanoverland.Thesepeoplewereprobablygatherersandfishersratherthanhuntersofbiggame.→ThereweretwolatermigrationsintoNorthAmerica.About5000B.C.E.theAthapascanorNa-Denepeoplebegantosettletheforestsinthenorthwesternareaofthecontinent.EventuallyAthapascanspeakers,theancestorsoftheNavajosandApaches,migratedacrosstheGreatPlainstotheSouthwest.Thefinalmigrationbeganabout3000B.C.E.afterBeringiahadbeensubmerged,whenamaritimehuntingpeoplecrossedtheBeringStraitsinsmallboats.TheInuits(alsoknownastheEskimos)colonizedthepolarcoastsoftheArctic,theYupiksthecoastofsouthwesternAlaska,andtheAleutstheAleutianIslands.Whilescientistsdebatethetimingandmappingofthesemigrations,manyIndianpeopleholdtooraltraditionsthatincludealongjourneyfromadistantplaceoforigintoanewhomeland.

Directions : Read the passage

语法与词汇From photography’s infancy, ---------of landscape views by camera began to support handmade depictions in watercolour, pencil, or ink.

语法与词汇(By) the end of the nineteenth century, organic chemistry had (develop) new (methods) for the (synthesis) of dyes, perfumes, explosives, and medicines.

语法与词汇Salamanders are sometime confused with lizards, but unlike lizards ________no scales or claws.

语法与词汇In jazz music, a riff is a simple melodic figure, ________ and repeated several times.