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Tower of London Begun in 1078, the Tower of London was built in London"s southeast corner by William the Conqueror as a stronghold and a symbol of his power. It was also built to serve as a fortress for William"s defense and a prison for his enemies. The enormous structure took twenty years to complete and was protected by a wide ditch, the old Roman walls, and the Thames River. Walls one hundred feet high and fifteen feet thick in places protected the prison and its interior which housed a chapel, apartments, guardrooms, and crypts and ensured that no prisoner would escape from it. Throughout the years, the Tower became the seat of the local government and an administrative center. ? King Henry Ⅲ made the Tower his home in 1240 and extended the tower to include a church, a great hall, other buildings, and a zoo. He renamed the whole area the Tower of London and renamed the most important original tower the White Tower because he had whitewashed its exterior walls and used the interior to entertain guests. King Henry had the zoo built to greet guests because many of his guests and visiting dignitaries brought him gifts of animals. King Henry Ⅶ was the last English king to reside in the Tower of London. Believing the Tower to be a dangerous place to live, King Henry Ⅶ formed a group of bodyguards to protect him. His protectors, called Yeoman Warders, were the first to guard the tower. Today the protectors of the Tower are still called Yeoman Warders. The Tower of London has been the site of celebrations and executions and the home to distinguished prisoners. The celebrations at the Tower continued for several days when King Henry Ⅷ married his second wife, Anne Boleyn at the Tower in 1533. Three years later, however, the King ordered Anne executed. Although she had been accused of misconduct, it is believed the real reason she was beheaded was that she bore Henry Ⅷ a daughter, the future Queen Elizabeth I, rather than a son. Elizabeth, also, was later imprisoned in the Tower for two months by order of her half sister, Queen Mary. After she had been crowned Queen, Elizabeth l stayed three days at the Tower as a symbolic gesture indicating it was her royal duty to take possession of the Tower. ? [■] Ceremonial traditions are important at the Tower of London. [■] The ceremony, which is the oldest surviving military ceremony in the world, first took place more than seven hundred years ago because the Tower was used to house prisoners and to store the Crown"s gold and jewels. [■] The government believed that it was extremely important to keep the Tower secure and each night at dusk the Chief Yeoman Warder and an armed escort would lock and secure all of the Tower"s gates and doors so the Tower could not be attacked and entered by enemies of the King. After the entrances had been secured, the keys were handed over to the Governor of the Tower. In the 1800s the closing of the Tower was changed from dusk to 10:00 p.m. to ensure that all of the King"s soldiers were inside the Tower before the gates were locked. [■] Today, the ceremony for closing the Tower begins exactly seven minutes before ten o"clock and concludes exactly at ten o"clock with the playing of the "Last Post" on a bugle. The time for closing the Tower remains the same today as it has for more than one hundred and seventy-five years and above all things, the ceremony followed seven hundred years ago is exactly the same today. ? Ravens, which are large relatives of the crow, are also part of the Tower of London"s traditions. According to legend, if the ravens would ever leave the Tower of London, the White Tower will crumble, the monarchy will fall, and England shall suffer a great disaster. It is believed that ravens have lived at the Tower of London since the seventeenth century. Only in the year 1946, after the end of World War Ⅱ, were there no ravens at the Tower. Since that time the Tower has been home to six ravens, but recently two additional, auxiliary ravens, have been added to the number. The ravens are led at government expense and their stay is assured because their flight feathers have been clipped. The Tower of London is a fortress and a symbol of royal power. It has been the seat of government and the home of monarchs. It has also served as a jail, a zoo, and a repository for the royal jewels. Although the royal family no longer occupies the Tower of London, it is still a royal residence. Today it is a tourist attraction which houses a famous museum of jewels and armor. It is also one of the most well-preserved buildings in the world. Glossary warder: a guard, porter, or watchman of a gate or tower monarchy: a stale ruled by a monarch (a sole absolute ruler) raven: a large bird with black plumage and a croaking cry

MigrationfromAsiaTheAsianmigrationhypothesisistodaysupportedbymostofthescientificevidence.Thefirst"hard"datalinkingAmericanIndianswithAsiansappearedinthe1980swiththefindingthatIndiansandnortheastAsiansshareacommonanddistinctivepatterninthearrangementoftheteeth.Butperhapsthemostcompellingsupportforthehypothesiscomesfromgeneticresearch.StudiescomparingtheDNAvariationofpopulations-aroundtheworldconsistentlydemonstratetheclosegeneticrelationshipofthetwopopulations,andrecentlygeneticistsstudyingavirussequesteredinthekidneysofallhumansfoundthatthestrainofviruscarriedbyNavajosandJapaneseisnearlyidentical,whilethatcarriedbyEuropeansandAfricansisquitedifferent.Themigrationcouldhavebegunoveralandbridgeconnectingthecontinents.DuringthelastIceAge70,000to10,000yearsago,hugeglacierslockedupmassivevolumesofwaterandsealevelswereasmuchas300feetlowerthantoday.AsiaandNorthAmericawerejoinedbyahugesubcontinentofice-free,treelessgrassland,750mileswide.GeologistshavenamedthisareaBeringia,fromtheBeringStraits.Summerstherewerewarm,winterswerecold,dryandalmostsnow-free.Thiswasaperfectenvironmentforlargemammals--mammothandmastodon,bison,horse,reindeer,camel,andsaiga(agoatlikeantelope).SmallbandsofStoneAgehunter-gathererswereattractedbytheseanimalpopulations,whichprovidedthemnotonlywithfoodbutwithhidesforclothingandshelter,dungforfuel,andbonesfortoolsandweapons.Accompaniedbyahusky-likespeciesofdog,huntingbandsgraduallymovedasfareastastheYukonRiverbasinofnorthernCanada,wherefieldexcavationshaveuncoveredthefossilizedjawbonesofseveraldogsandbonetoolsestimatedtobeabout27,000yearsold.OtherevidencesuggeststhatthemigrationfromAsiabeganabout30,000yearsago--aroundthesametimethatJapanandScandinaviawerebeingsettled.Thisevidenceisbasedonbloodtype.ThevastmajorityofmodernnativeAmericanshavetypeObloodandafewhavetypeA,butalmostnonehavetypeB.BecausemodernAsianpopulationsincludeallthreebloodtypes,however,themigrationsmusthavebegunbeforetheevolutionoftypeB,whichgeneticistsbelieveoccurredabout30,000yearsago.By25,000yearsagohumancommunitieswereestablishedinwesternBeringia,whichispresent-dayAlaska.ButaccesstothesouthwasblockedbyahugeglacialsheetcoveringmuchofwhatistodayCanada.Howdidthehuntersgetoverthose2,000milesofdeepice?TheargumentisthattheclimatebegantowarmwiththepassingoftheIceAge,andabout13,000B.C.E.glacialmeltingcreatedanice-freecorridoralongtheeasternfrontrangeoftheRockyMountains.SoonhuntersofbiggamehadreachedtheGreatPlains.Inthepastseveralyears,however,newarchaeologicalfindsalongthePacificcoastofNorthandSouthAmericahavethrownthistheoryintoquestion.Themostspectacularfind,atMonteVerdeinsouthernChile,producedstrikingevidenceoftoolmaking,housebuilding,rockpainting,andhumanfoot-printsconservativelydatedat12,500yearsago,longbeforethehighwayhadbeenclearedofice.Manyarchaeologistsnowbelievethatmigrantsmovedsouthinboatsalongacoastalrouteratherthanoverland.Thesepeoplewereprobablygatherersandfishersratherthanhuntersofbiggame.ThereweretwolatermigrationsintoNorthAmerica.About5000B.C.E.theAthapascanorNa-Denepeoplebegantosettletheforestsinthenorthwesternareaofthecontinent.EventuallyAthapascanspeakers,theancestorsoftheNavajosandApaches,migratedacrosstheGreatPlainstotheSouthwest.Thefinalmigrationbeganabout3000B.C.E.afterBeringiahadbeensubmerged,whenamaritimehuntingpeoplecrossedtheBeringStraitsinsmallboats.TheInuits(alsoknownastheEskimos)colonizedthepolarcoastsoftheArctic,theYupikthecoastofsouthwesternAlaska,andtheAleutstheAleutianIslands.Whilescientistsdebatethetimingandmappingofthesemigrations,manyIndianpeopleholdtooraltraditionsthatincludealongjourneyfromadistantplaceoforigintoanewhomelan

THE FIVE—SEVEN SHIFT 1 All major theories of child psychology state that children undergo a major change between the ages of five and seven. In classical learning theory, this is a time when the simplest forms of learning give way to learning that involves more complex mental processes. According to psychologist Jean Piaget, the period from five to seven years old is a transition to operational thought, when children are able to move beyond using only their senses toward using a new set of rational-thinking skills. Because several cognitive changes occur in children between ages five and seven, this period is called the five-seven shift. The shift is biological in nature and involves fundamental growth in the brain and stabilization of brain-wave rhythms into a basically adult pattern. The five-seven shift involves many physical changes, such as the loss of the "baby teeth" and an increase in the rates of height acquired and weight gained. 2 By the time they are five years old, children can understand and use symbols. They have developed the ability to use words, gestures, and pictures to stand for "real life" objects, and they are skilled in deploying various symbol systems, such as language or drawing. However, a five-year-old child is able to focus attention on only one quality of an object at a time, such as the object's size or shape. The use of symbolization continues to evolve, reaching a peak around the age of seven or eight, when children become capable of concrete operations. When this happens, they can solve problems by using rational thought to make generalizations from their own experience. 3 By the age of seven or eight, a new set of abilities allows children to reason systematically about the world of objects, quantity, time, space, and causality. According to Piaget, this is because an "extra card" is added to the child's mental "computer" during the five-seven shift. The development of operational thought enables the child to appreciate the relations among a series of actions upon objects. For example, the child understands that a scene can be viewed from a different perspective and still contain the same elements. The child also understands that objects can be rearranged and still have the same quantity and that a substance can be changed in shape without its mass or volume being affected. 4 Piaget discovered the most widely known hallmark of the five-seven shift, an understanding of conservation, the idea that some properties stay the same despite changes in appearance. In one of Piaget's classic experiments on the conservation of quantity, the experimenter shows children of different ages two straight rows of coins, each with six coins pressed close together, beside each other on a table. The experimenter asks each child subject whether both rows have the same number of coins or whether one row has more. Then the experimenter spreads out the coins of one row to make the line look longer. The child must now say whether one row has more coins. Children younger than five years old cannot understand conservation, so they invariably say that the spread-out row has more coins than the other row. 5 Like most age-related tasks for children, there are other ways to set up the task. In a similar experiment, water is poured into two identical glasses until the child subject agrees that each contains an equal amount. Then the experimenter pours water from one of these glasses into a tall, thin glass. At that point, the child is asked whether one glass has more water than the other. Five-year-old children will say that there is more water in the tall, thin glass. When asked why they think that, many will confidently say, "Because it's taller." Older children, however, are likely to reply, "It looks like there's more water in this one because it's taller, but they're really the same." Such experiments show a difference between children of five years and children of eight years. The older children can solve the task promptly, easily, under a wide variety of conditions, and without being taught. The younger children, even if they are taught about conservation, cannot do what the five-seven shift will do for them naturally: provide them with a more developed brain.Glossary: cognitive: relating to mental processes

Natural Selection First coined by Darwin, the term natural selection refers to the process at the core of evolutionary theory. Simply put, Darwin believed that every living organism had to struggle to survive and reproduce. By random chance, some individuals in a species would have characteristics that made them better adapted to this struggle than their contemporaries. Such individuals would be more likely to reproduce and pass their characteristics on to their offspring. Over many generations, a series of small differences in characteristics would accumulate, until eventually the creatures that were produced would be so different from their original ancestors that they would constitute a new species. ■(A) Although Darwin did not know how variations between individual members of the same species were able to arise in the first place or how such traits could then be passed on from species to species, we now know that this process occurs through genes. ■(B) Genes determine what characteristics an organism will possess, from its size to its skin color to its gender. ■(C) Sometimes these genes become damaged or altered--a process known as mutation. ■(D) Most mutations are either too small to have any effect, or have detrimental effects on the organism. A few, however, can be beneficial to helping an organism survive. The organisms with these beneficial mutations are the ones that .survive and reproduce, passing their particular genetic mutation on to future generations. Originally, Darwin thought that two particular types of traits were naturally selected for evolution. The first type included any and all traits that helped an organism survive, either by giving it easier access to food, better protection from predators, or superior adaptability to shifting environmental conditions. Several examples of the natural selection of such traits have been observed since Darwin first proposed his theory. The most often cited example is the coloration of moths near industrial centers. Some of them have white wings and the others have black wings. Under normal conditions, the lighter-colored moths predominate since white moths are less visible against the light-colored bark of the trees in the forests where they live, which means they can more easily avoid predators. Near industrial centers, however, darker-colored moths predominate, as the pollution from the factory has darkened the bark of the nearby trees. Moths landing on these trees are much more difficult to see if they have black wings. This trait has now become most common in moth populations living in areas where pollutants have changed the color of the tree bark. The second type of naturally selected traits envisioned by Darwin involved those characteristics of an organism that made it easier for that organism to find a mate. This form of natural selection, often called sexual selection, was thought to explain the existence of highly developed traits in certain animals that seemed to play no particular role in their survival, and that in some cases seemed to make it even harder for them to survive. A prime example of such a trait is the peacock's elaborate, colorful tail feathers. A long, unwieldy tail that can expand into a display of bright colors that draws the attention of any predator in the vicinity seems less likely than that of other kinds of birds to help the bird survive. However, researchers discovered that peahens invariably chose to mate with those peacocks whose tail feathers produced the most artistic displays. Thus, although the peacock's tail feathers have no adaptive function in terms of coping with survival pressure, the gene that controls feather color is the one that is most likely to be passed on because of its role in the mating process. Many scientists now believe that a third type of naturally selected characteristics exists, namely those that may be harmful to an individual organism but beneficial to that organism's species. This helps to explain the persistence of certain traits that were viewed under traditional evolutionary theory as not assisting in adaptation. For instance, in many animal species, including humans, a small subset of the population is homosexual. Under the old view of evolution, this could not be accounted for since homosexual individuals do not normally reproduce, meaning the gene that codes for it should have long been phased out of the gene pool. However, recent studies among wild sheep populations have found that the prevalence of homosexuality in the sheep population increases in times of severe food shortages, causing the sheep to form stronger bonds with sheep of the same sex than they otherwise would. As a result, instead of fighting over a particular food source, these sheep share the food they find with each other, increasing the species' chance of surviving hard times. Though still controversial, the idea that traits may be naturally selected because of their benefits to the species instead of their benefits to the individual is rapidly gaining acceptance in the scientific community because of the wide array of characteristics that it can explain, including the human tendency towards altruism,

Directions: Read the passage. Then answer the questions. Give yourself 20 minutes to complete this practice set. THE ORIGIN OF THE PACIFIC ISLAND PEOPLE The greater Pacific region, traditionally called Oceania, consists of three cultural areas: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Melanesia, in the southwest Pacific, contains the large islands of New Guinea, the Solomons, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia. Micronesia, the area north of Melanesia, consists primarily of small scattered islands. Polynesia is the central Pacific area in the great triangle defined by Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand. Before the arrival of Europeans, the islands in the two largest cultural areas, Polynesia and Micronesia, together contained a population estimated at 700,000. Speculation on the origin of these Pacific islanders began as soon as outsiders encountered them; in the absence of solid linguistic, archaeological, and biological data, many fanciful and mutually exclusive theories were devised. Pacific islanders were variously thought to have come from North America, South America, Egypt, Israel, and India, as well as Southeast Asia. Many older theories implicitly deprecated the navigational abilities and overall cultural creativity of the Pacific islanders. For example, British anthropologists G. Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry assumed that only Egyptians would have been skilled enough to navigate and colonize the Pacific. They inferred that the Egyptians even crossed the Pacific to found the great civilizations of the New World (North and South America). In 1947 Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl drifted on a balsa-log raft westward with the winds and currents across the Pacific from South America to prove his theory that Pacific islanders were Native Americans (also called American Indians). Later Heyerdahl suggested that the Pacific was peopled by three migrations: by Native Americans from the Pacific Northwest of North America drifting to Hawaii, by Peruvians drifting to Easter Island, and by Melanesians. In 1969 he crossed the Atlantic in an Egyptian-style reed boat to prove Egyptian influences in the Americas. Contrary to these theorists, the overwhelming evidence of physical anthropology, linguistics, and archaeology shows that the Pacific islanders came from Southeast Asia and were skilled enough as navigators to sail against the prevailing winds and currents. The basic cultural requirements for the successful colonization of the Pacific islands include the appropriate boat-building, sailing, and navigation skills to get to the islands in the first place; domesticated plants and gardening skills suited to often marginal conditions; and a varied inventory of fishing implements and techniques. It is now generally believed that these prerequisites originated with peoples speaking Austronesian languages (a group of several hundred related languages) and began to emerge in Southeast Asia by about 5000 B.C.E. The culture of that time, based on archaeology and linguistic reconstruction, is assumed to have had a broad inventory of cultivated plants including taro, yams, banana, sugarcane, breadfruit, coconut, sago, and rice. Just as important, the culture also possessed the basic foundation for an effective maritime adaptation, including outrigger canoes and a variety of fishing techniques that could be effective for overseas voyaging. Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the Pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals. Detailed studies of the winds and currents using computer simulations suggest that drifting canoes would have been a most unlikely means of colonizing the Pacific. These expeditions were likely driven by population growth and political dynamics on the home islands, as well as the challenge and excitement of exploring unknown waters. Because all Polynesians, Micronesians, and many Melanesians speak Austronesian languages and grow crops derived from Southeast Asia, all these peoples most certainly derived from that region and not the New World or elsewhere. The undisputed pre-Columbian presence in Oceania of the sweet potato, which is a New World domesticate, has sometimes been used to support Heyerdahl's "American Indians in the Pacific" theories. However, this is one plant out of a long list of Southeast Asian domesticates. As Patrick Kirch, an American anthropologist, points out, rather than being brought by rafting South Americans, sweet potatoes might just have easily been brought back by returning Polynesian navigators who could have reached the west coast of South America.

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MARY COLTER AND FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT 1 In the early twentieth century, the {{U}}thrust{{/U}} in American architecture was toward a style rooted in the American landscape and based on American rather than European forms. Two architects who worked independently yet simultaneously at endorsing an American architecture were Mary CoRer (1869-1958) and Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959). Both developed regional styles that paralleled the regionalism seen in the other visual arts. Colter created a uniquely Southwestern idiom incorporating desert landscapes with Native American arts; Wright and his followers in Chicago developed the Prairie style of domestic architecture that reflected the natural landscape of the Midwest. 2 Mary Colter's hotels and national park buildings are rooted so masterfully in the history of the Southwest that they seem to be genuine pieces of that history. Her magnificent Watchtower, overlooking the Grand Canyon in Arizona, was built to suggest an ancient Native American ruin preserved for the delight of the present-day traveler. 3 CoRer was a lifelong student of art history, natural history, and human civilization. Her well-rounded artistic talents empowered her to work historical references into buildings constructed with modern methods and materials. She preferred to use materials indigenous to the region, such as {{U}}Kaibab limestone{{/U}} and {{U}}yellow pine{{/U}}. {{U}}She took great stock in materials and setting, gathering many of her materials on-site and incorporating them in their natural state into her projects.{{/U}} She treated building and site as integral halves of a single composition and {{U}}merged{{/U}} them seamlessly. Her Lookout Studio, for example, appears to rise straight from the rim of the Grand Canyon because its layering of stonework matches the texture, pattern, and color of the canyon wall below it. 4 When Colter designed the Watchtower, she wanted the building to be a part of its environment while also enhancing the view of the surrounding desert and the canyon and river below. She decided to recreate a Native American watchtower because it would provide the necessary height while assuming the appearance of a prehistoric building. Colter was familiar with the architectural remains of ancient villages scattered about the Southwest and was especially fascinated by the stone towers--round, square, and oval monoliths. The ancient Round Tower at Mesa Verde became the direct inspiration for the form and proportions of the Watchtower. The Twin Towers ruin at Hovenweep, whose stone was closer to that available at the Grand Canyon, was the model for the Watchtower's masonry. The Watchtower is perhaps the best example of Colter's integration of history, architecture, and landscape in a unified work of art. 5 Like Mary CoRer, Frank Lloyd Wright believed that architecture was an extension of the natural environment. Wright was {{U}}appalled{{/U}} by much of what he saw in the industrialized world. He was not fond of cities, and although he designed office buildings and museums, his favorite commissions were for homes, usually in the country. Wright is associated with the Prairie style of residential architecture, whose emphasis on horizontal elements reflected the prairie landscapes of the Midwest. Most Prairie-style homes have one or two stories and are built of brick or timber covered with stucco. The eaves of the low-pitched roof extend well beyond the walls, enhancing the structure's horizontality. 6 Wright's own studio-residence in Wisconsin was completely integrated with the surrounding landscape. He nestled his house in the brow of a hill and gave it the name Taliesin, which means "shining brow" in Welsh. Every element of the design corresponded to the surounding landscape. The yellow stone came from a quarry a mile away, so Taliesin looked like the outcroppings on the local hills. The exterior wood was the color of gray tree trunks. The stucco walls above the stone had the same tawny color as the sandbanks in the fiver below. Wright's most famous house, {{U}}Fallingwater{{/U}}, was built right over a waterfall in Pennsylvania. The house blends harmoniously with its surroundings, yet it departs from the Prairie philosophy of being a completely integrated extension of the natural landscape. Some features of the house are more like those of the simple, unadorned International style, particularly the interlocking geometry of the planes and the flat, textureless surface of the horizontal elements.

American Literature Folklore ? [■] Folklore includes many kinds of stories which have been told to people over the years and have, at some point, been written down. [■] The idea, or plot, of the story may remain the same but several versions of the story may result over time because people change the details of the story. [■] The story of Paul Bunyan is one of the tail tales which has been passed from generation to generation. Paul"s story is a type of hero story and he is a hero who is "bigger than life" and stronger than real people. [■] Paul Bunyan is the legendary hero of all lumberjacks in America and Babe the Big Blue Ox, who was Paul"s constant companion, is an important character in most of the tales. Paul"s stories were first told in the lumber camps of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, but tales about him grew and circulated throughout America as loggers and lumbermen retold the stories they had heard. And as these stories were retold, each storyteller usually added embellishments of his own. According to one story, Paul was born in the state of Maine and his first bed was a lumber wagon pulled by a team of horses. Paul"s father supposedly drove the wagon from central Maine to the tip of northern Maine every time Paul needed to be rocked to sleep. As a child, Paul liked to scream a lot. One time he screamed so loud he scared all of the fish out of the lakes and rivers, and when the frogs knew Paul would be screaming for breakfast, they put on earmuffs so they would not be deafened . According to another legend, Paul ruined most of Maine"s timberlands when he became restless during one of his naps because he rolled around to get comfortable and knocked down trees as he rolled. ? When Paul caused a tidal wave in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, his parents moved their family to Minnesota. It may have been in Minnesota during the Winter of Blue Snow that Paul discovered Babe. Paul had been walking in the woods one day and heard a funny sound in the knee-deep blue snow. When he looked down into the snow, he saw a tiny blue ox hopping about in the snow, angrily snorting because he could not see over the snow drifts. Paul took the little ox home with him and dried him out, but the blue snow had stained the ox"s coat. According to legend, that is the reason Babe became known as Babe, the Blue Ox. Babe, like Paul, grew to massive proportions. The span between Babe"s eyes was wide enough for 42 axe handles. The distance between Babe"s horns was so wide that it would take a bird a whole day to fly from one horn to another. And Babe"s horns made a wonderful place for the lumbermen to hang their laundry. ? Babe was an enormous help to Paul in the logging camps. He was strong enough to pull wagons along curving, twisty logging roads and make them into straight, easy-to-use roads. Paul and Babe also helped shape the landscape of America. Paul and Babe are credited with creating the Mississippi River. One story is told that in Minnesota one day Babe had been pulling an extremely large tank wagon loaded with water to coat the newly straightened roads with ice. The wagon sprang a leak and water began trickling south, forming the Mississippi River. Another version of the story is that Paul dug the Mississippi River to irrigate corn crops which grew so fast they could not be cut down. As the lumbermen began logging off the forested land in Minnesota, Babe supposedly stomped all of the tree stumps into the ground and created the 10,000 lakes for which Minnesota is well known. The Great Lakes were dug by Babe and Paul, and Grand Canyon was said to have been dug out by Babe when he ran away with one of Paul"s plows. Paul is thought to have tossed piles of dirt into a stack to form Mr. Rainier as he was digging Puget Sound for the city of Seattle. Paul then formed the San Juan Islands off the coast of Washington because, according to legend, he was not paid for his work of digging the Sound. When he began throwing shovelfuls of dirt back into the water to protest the non-payment for his work, the dirt began to pile up and form the islands. ? The legend of Paul Bunyan has survived throughout the years and will continue to exist as one of America"s "tall tales" for everyone to enjoy. Although Paul did not actually exist, there were real lumberjacks living in the northern lumber camps who loved to tell stories. The imaginative stories about the creation of the Mississippi River, Grand Canyon and other American sites are part of bigger-than-life lumberjack stories that make up part of the folklore of America. Glossary folklore: traditional stories, customs, and habits of a particular community legend: a very old and popular story that may be true tall tale: a long and complicated story that is difficult to believe

Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the type of mass wasting to which they refer. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 4 points. Answer Choices A．Occur when a mass of rock moves downslope as a unit B．Involve the mass movement of soil containing a large amount of water C．May have the consistency of wet concrete or soup D．Occur where sloping rock layers have cracks parallel to the slope E．Occur when a layer of snow breaks loose and moves rapidly downslope F．Include the transportation of organic materials by wind and water G．Float on a thin layer of air as they move rapidly down a mountain H．Move slowly but with enough force to carry away trees and houses I．Occur on slopes where layers of volcanic debris become extremely wet

MASS WASTING PROCESSES 1 The downslope movement of rock, mud, or other material under the influence of gravity is known as mass wasting. While the angle of the slope is a major factor in the potential for mass wasting, the slope is not the sole determiner of mass wasting events. Water plays a significant role, especially where it is plentiful during the rainy season. Earthquakes may cause rockslides, mudflows, and other mass movements. Factors such as the presence or absence of vegetation and human activities can also influence the potential for mass wasting. 2 One way to classify mass wasting processes is on the basis of the material involved, such as rock, debris, earth, or mud. The manner in which the material moves is also important and is generally described as a fall, a slide, or a flow. A fall occurs when weathering loosens boulders from cliffs or rock faces, causing the boulders to break away and fall. A slide takes place whenever material remains fairly coherent and moves along a well-defined surface. A flow involves the movement of debris containing a large amount of water. 3 Many mass wasting processes are described as slides. Rockslides occur when a coherent mass of rock breaks loose and slides down a slope as a unit. If the material involved is mostly separate pieces, it is called a debris slide. Slides are among the fastest and most destructive mass movements. Usually rockslides occur in a geologic setting where the rock layers are inclined, or where there are joints and fractures in the rock that are parallel to the slope. When such a rock unit is undercut at the base of the slope, it loses support and the rock eventually collapses. Rain or snowmelt can trigger a rockslide by wetting the underlying surface to the point that friction can no longer hold the rock in place. The fastest type of slide is a rock avalanche, in which a mass of rock literally floats on air as it moves downslope. The high speed of a rock avalanche is the result of air becoming trapped and compressed beneath the falling mass of debris, allowing it to move down the slope as a buoyant sheet. 4 Mudflows are relatively rapid mass wasting events that involve soil and a large amount of water. Because of their fluid properties, mudflows follow canyons and stream channels. Mudflows often take place in semiarid mountainous regions and on the slopes of some volcanoes. Although rainstorms in semiarid regions are infrequent, they are typically heavy when they occur. When a rainstorm or rapidly melting snow creates a sudden flood, large quantities of soil and loose rock are washed into nearby stream channels because there is usually little or no vegetation to anchor the surface material. The result is a flowing mass of well-mixed mud, soil, rock, and water. The consistency of the mudflow may be similar to that of wet concrete, or it may be a soupy mixture not much thicker than muddy water. The water content influences the rate of flow across the surface. When a mudflow is dense, it moves more slowly, but it can easily carry or push large boulders, trees, and even houses along with it. 5 In dry mountainous areas such as southern California, mudflows are a serious hazard to development on and near canyon hillsides. The removal of native vegetation by brush fires has increased the probability of these destructive events. Past mudflows have contributed to the buildup of fan-shaped deposits at canyon mouths. Such fans are relatively easy to build on and often have scenic views, so many have become desirable sites for residential development. However, because mudflows occur infrequently, homeowners are often unaware of the potential danger of building on the site of a previous mudflow. 6 Highly fluid, fast-flowing mudflows incorporate fine-grained sediment and are common after volcanic eruptions that produce large volumes of volcanic ash. Mudflows containing volcanic debris are called lahars, a word originating in Indonesia, a region that experiences many volcanic eruptions. Lahars occur when highly unstable layers of ash and debris become saturated with water and flow down steep volcanic slopes along stream channels. In the northwestern United States, the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 created several lahars that raced down the valley of the Toutle River, altering the landscape in a relatively short period.

Eating Disorders Eating disorders have been most commonly associated with women, and, therefore, most studies on anorexia nervosa have concentrated around the female population. Such gender bias, however, makes it less likely that a doctor will diagnose a male as having an eating disorder or anorexia nervosa even though he might exhibit identical symptoms to that of a female. Men are far less likely to discuss an eating disorder with other men or with women. Their doctors are more likely to diagnose them as having a bout of depression due to stress or some kind of upset mind rather than suffering from an eating disorder because such disorders have been largely labeled as female diseases. This is mostly due to cultural differences perceived between men and women. Discussions about beauty, new diets and body weight are seen as the female arena of debate that males seldom enter. Also, traditionally, men"s beauty is displayed in body mass, building muscle, and body building, and therefore to discuss issues surrounding weight loss is not seen as particularly masculine because men are said not to have psychological problems and not to desire to talk about their feelings even though they do suffer from anorexia too. [■] The disease is far more common in the Western world than anywhere else, and there is much cause for concern as recent research suggests that the disease is on the increase. The disease mostly manifests itself during adolescence when the signs of obvious weight loss become apparent. People who suffer from the disease have a genuine and constant terrifying fear of gaining weight, even when their weight is much less than that of people of their same height and stature. Doctors have been able to characterize the disease because the sufferer"s body weight is about 15% below average for their height. Those afflicted with anorexia also tend to avoid fatty foods, use laxatives, diuretics or engage in excessive exercise. Because people live in a world obsessed with outward appearance, where the fashion and cosmetics industry forces an image of the ideal body upon the public, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between anorexics and those who have a higher interest in their physical appearance than most people. Anorexics can be distinguished from non-anorexics because weight loss is completely self-induced and the sufferer goes to extremes to lose weight, also engaging in self-induced vomiting until eventually the situation fast gets out of control. Sufferers are also completely preoccupied with their bodies and actually believe themselves to be fat when in reality they are malnourished and starkly thinner than their peers. They also begin to lose interest in activities their peers are involved in, such as socializing, and very often become withdrawn. These are common symptoms in many adolescents, but coupled with the obvious and drastic weight loss and lack of concentration it is easier to diagnose an adolescent with the beginning stages of anorexia. The actual cause of the disease is unknown, but scientists believe that biological and social factors play a role, and sometimes the disease can be triggered by traumatic events such as a death in the family, stress or the onset of puberty. [■] While it is true that most sufferers of the disease are female, some 10% are male. Studies show that there are differences between male and female anorexics. Female sufferers tend to view themselves as fatter, more overweight than males with the same condition. Males tend to engage in less self-induced vomiting, take fewer laxatives and diuretics, display more motivation, but have more physical complaints. It has also been suggested that there is a link between homosexuality and males afflicted by the disease. The actual figure is unknown, and it is important to understand that such a link does not indicate that all male sufferers of anorexia nervosa or eating disorder are homosexual. In addition, there tends to be a higher rate in suicide attempts in male sufferers. The biggest problem, however, is diagnosing male anorexia or eating disorder because of the common belief that such diseases are essentially female although the medical profession is more aware of male anorexia than ever before. Sufferers can go many years without treatment, but eventually they lose as much as 25-30% of their body weight, which leads to chronic illness and even death. The mortality rate is as high as 5%. Others are lucky because sometimes the onset of the disease can temporarily be halted, which leads to complete recovery. [■] There is treatment for sufferers of this terrible disease. In some cases, sufferers are treated by medication, usually when the disease is accompanied by severe depression. More commonly, though, sufferers are referred to a psychologist or a therapist and are encouraged to join self-help groups where they are counseled by people who have had first-hand experience of the disease themselves. [■]