ClimatechangerevealsancientartefactsinNorwaysglaciersAWellabovethetreelineinNorwayshighestmountains,ancientfieldsoficeareshrinkingasEarthsclimatewarms.Astheicehasvanished,ithasbeengivingupthetreasuresithaspreservedincoldstorageforthelast6,000years-itemssuchasancientarrowsandskisfromVikingAge*traders.AndthoseartefactshaveprovidedarchaeologistswithsomesurprisinginsightsintohowancientNorwegiansmadetheirlivings.BOrganicmaterialsliketextilesandhidesarerelativelyrarefindsatarchaeologicalsites.Thisisbecauseunlesstheyreprotectedfromthemicroorganismsthatcausedecay,theytendnottolastlong.Extremecoldisonereliablewaytokeepartefactsrelativelyfreshforafewthousandyears,butoncethawedout,thesematerialsexperiencedegradationrelativelyswiftly.Withclimatechangeshrinkingicecoveraroundtheworld,glacialarchaeologistsneedtoracetheclocktofindnewlyrevealedartefacts,preservethem,andstudythem.Ifsomethingfragiledriesandiswindblownitmightverysoonbelosttoscience,oranarrowmightbeexposedandthencoveredagainbythenextsnowandremainwell-preserved.Theunpredictabilitymeansthatglacialarchaeologistshavetobesystematicintheirapproachtofieldwork.COveranine-yearperiod,ateamofarchaeologists,whichincludedLarsPiløofOpplandCountyCouncil,Norway,andJamesBarrettoftheMcDonaldInstituteforArchaeologicalResearch,surveyedpatchesoficeinOppland,anareaofsouth-centralNorwaythatishometosomeofthecountryshighestmountains.Reindeeroncecongregatedontheseicypatchesinthelatersummermonthstoescapebitinginsects,andfromthelateStoneAge**,huntersfollowed.Inaddition,traderoutesthreadedthroughthemountainpassesofOppland,linkingsettlementsinNorwaytotherestofEurope.Theslowbutsteadymovementofglacierstendstodestroyanythingattheirbases,sotheteamfocusedonstationarypatchesofice,mostlyabove1,400metres.Thaticeisfoundamidfieldsoffrost-weatheredboulders,fallenrocks,andexposedbedrockthatforninemonthsoftheyearisburiedbeneathsnow.“Fieldworkishardwork-hikingwithallourequipment,oftencampingonpermafrost-butveryrewarding.Yourerescuingthearchaeology,bringingthemeltingicetowiderattention,discoveringauniqueenvironmentalhistoryandreallyconnectingwiththenaturalenvironment,saysBarrett.DAttheedgesofthecontractingicepatches,archaeologistsfoundmorethan2,000artefacts,whichformedamaterialrecordthatranfrom4,000BCEtothebeginningsoftheRenaissanceinthe14thcentury.Manyoftheartefactsareassociatedwithhunting.Hunterswouldhaveeasilymisplacedarrowsandtheyoftendiscardedbrokenbowsratherthantakethemallthewayhome.OtheritemscouldhavebeenusedbyhunterstraversingthehighmountainpassesofOppland:all-purposeitemsliketools,skis,andhorsetack.EBarrettsteamradiocarbon-dated153oftheartefactsandcomparedthosedatestothetimingofmajorenvironmentalchangesintheregion-suchasperiodsofcoolingorwarming-andmajorsocialandeconomicshifts-suchasthegrowthoffarmingsettlementsandthespreadofinternationaltradenetworksleadinguptotheVikingAge.Theyfoundthatsomeperiodshadproducedlotsofartefacts,whichindicatesthatpeoplehadbeenprettyactiveinthemountainsduringthosetimes.Buttherewerefewornosignsofactivityduringotherperiods.FWhatwassurprising,accordingtoBarrett,wasthetimingoftheseperiods.Opplandsmountainspresentdauntingterrainandinperiodsofextremecold,glacierscouldblockthehighermountainpassesandmaketravelintheupperreachesofthemountainsextremelydifficult.ArchaeologistsassumedpeoplewouldsticktolowerelevationsduringatimeliketheLateAntiqueLittleIceAge,ashortperiodofdeeper-than-usualcoldfromabout536-600CE.Butitturnedoutthathunterskeptregularlyventuringintothemountainsevenwhentheclimateturnedcold,basedontheamountofstufftheyhadapparentlydroppedthere.Remarkably,though,thefindsfromtheicemayhavecontinuedthroughthisperiod,perhapssuggestingthattheimportanceofmountainhuntingincreasedtosupplementfailingagriculturalharvestsintimesoflowtemperatures,saysBarrett.AcolderturnintheScandinavianclimatewouldlikelyhavemeantwidespreadcropfailures,somorepeoplewouldhavedependedonhuntingtomakeupforthoselosses.GManyoftheartefactsBarrettsteamrecovereddatefromthebeginningoftheVikingAge,the700sthroughtothe900sCE.TradenetworksconnectingScandinaviawithEuropeandtheMiddleEastwereexpandingaroundthistime.AlthoughweusuallythinkofshipswhenwethinkofScandinavianexpansion,theserecentdiscoveriesshowthatplentyofgoodstravelledonoverlandroutes,likethemountainpassesofOppland.AndgrowingNorwegiantowns,alongwithexportmarkets,wouldhavecreatedaboomingdemandforhidestofightoffthecold,aswellasantlerstomakeusefulthingslikecombs.Businessmusthavebeengoodforhunters.HNorwaysmountainsareprobablystillhidingalotofhistory-andprehistory-inremoteicepatches.WhenBarrettsteamlookedatthedatesfortheirsampleof153artefacts,theynoticedagapwithalmostnoartefactsfromabout3,800to2,200BCE.Infact,archaeologicalfindsfromthatperiodarerarealloverNorway.Theresearcherssaythatcouldbebecausemanyofthoseartefactshavealreadydisintegratedorarestillfrozenintheice.Thatmeansarchaeologistscouldbeextractingsomeofthoseartefactsfromretreatingiceinyearstocome.Question20-22Completethesummarybelow.ChooseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes20-22onyouranswersheet.InterestingfindsatanarchaeologicalsiteOrganicmaterialssuchasanimalskinsandtextilesarenotdiscoveredveryoftenatarchaeologicalsites.Theyhavelittleprotectionagainst20,whichmeansthattheydecayrelativelyquickly.Butthisisnotalwaysthecase.Iftemperaturesarelowenough,fragileartefactscanbepreservedforthousandsofyears.AteamofarchaeologistshavebeenworkinginthemountainsinOpplandinNorwaytorecoverartefactsrevealedbyshrinkingicecover.Inthepast,thereweretraderoutesthroughthesemountainsand21 gatheredthereinthesummermonthstoavoidbeingattackedby22 onlowerground.Thepeoplewhousedthesemountainsleftthingsbehindanditisthoseobjectsthatareofinteresttoarchaeologists.
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Question21-26Completethenotesbelow.WriteONEWORDONLYforeachanswer.WhatHazelshouldanalyseaboutitemsinnewspapers:what21theitemisonthe22oftheitem,includingtheheadlineany23accompanyingtheitemthe24oftheitem,e.g.whatsmadeprominentthewritersmain25the26thewritermaymakeaboutthereaderQuestion27-30WhatdoesHazeldecidetodoabouteachofthefollowingtypesofarticles?Writethecorrectletter,A,BorC,nexttoQuestions27-30.Typesofarticles27nationalnewsitem 27 28editorial 28 29humaninterest 29 30arts 30 A.Shewilldefinitelylookforasuitablearticle.B.Shemaylookforasuitablearticle.C.Shedefinitelywontlookforanarticle.
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Question31-40Completethenotesbelow.WriteONEWORDONLYforeachanswer.HandknittingInterestinknittingKnittinghasalonghistoryaroundtheworld.Weimaginesomeonelikea31 knitting.A32 ago,knittingwasexpectedtodisappear.Thenumberofknittingclassesisnowincreasing.Peoplearebuyingmore33 forknittingnowadays.Benefitsofknittinggivessupportintimesof34 difficultyrequiresonly35 skillsandlittlemoneytostartreducesstressinabusylifeEarlyknittingTheoriginsarenotknown.Findingsshowearlyknitteditemstobe36 inshape.Thefirstneedlesweremadeofnaturalmaterialssuchaswoodand37 .Earlyyarnsfelt38 totouch.Woolbecamethemostpopularyarnforspinning.Geographicalareashadtheirown39 ofknitting.Everydaytaskslikelookingafter40 weredonewhileknitting.
ChangesinreadinghabitsWhataretheimplicationsofthewaywereadtoday?Lookaroundonyournextplanetrip.TheiPadisthenewpacifierforbabiesandtoddlers.Youngerschool-agedchildrenreadstoriesonsmartphones;olderkidsdontreadatall,buthunchovervideogames.Parentsandotherpassengersreadontabletsorskimaflotillaofemailandnewsfeeds.Unbeknowntomostofus,aninvisible,game-changingtransformationlinkseveryoneinthispicture:theneuronalcircuitthatunderliesthebrainsabilitytoreadissubtly,rapidlychangingandthishasimplicationsforeveryonefromthepre-readingtoddlertotheexpertadult.Asworkinneurosciencesindicates,theacquisitionofliteracynecessitatedanewcircuitinourspeciesbrainmorethan6,000yearsago.Thatcircuitevolvedfromaverysimplemechanismfordecodingbasicinformation,likethenumberofgoatsinonesherd,tothepresent,highlyelaboratedreadingbrain.Myresearchdepictshowthepresentreadingbrainenablesthedevelopmentofsomeofourmostimportantintellectualandaffectiveprocesses:internalizedknowledge,analogicalreasoning,andinference;perspective-takingandempathy;criticalanalysisandthegenerationofinsight.Researchsurfacinginmanypartsoftheworldnowcautionsthateachoftheseessentialdeepreadingprocessesmaybeunderthreataswemoveintodigital-basedmodesofreading.Thisisnotasimple,binaryissueofprintversusdigitalreadingandtechnologicalinnovation.AsMITscholarSherryTurklehaswritten,wedonoterrasasocietywhenweinnovatebutwhenweignorewhatwedisruptordiminishwhileinnovating.Inthishingemomentbetweenprintanddigitalcultures,societyneedstoconfrontwhatisdiminishingintheexpertreadingcircuit,whatourchildrenandolderstudentsarenotdeveloping,andwhatwecandoaboutit.Weknowfromresearchthatthereadingcircuitisnotgiventohumanbeingsthroughageneticblueprintlikevisionorlanguage;itneedsanenvironmenttodevelop.Further,itwilladapttothatenvironmentsrequirements-fromdifferentwritingsystemstothecharacteristicsofwhatevermediumisused.Ifthedominantmediumadvantagesprocessesthatarefast,multi-taskorientedandwell-suitedforlargevolumesofinformation,likethecurrentdigitalmedium,sowillthereadingcircuit.AsUCLApsychologistPatriciaGreenfieldwrites,theresultisthatlessattentionandtimewillbeallocatedtoslower,time-demandingdeepreadingprocesses.Increasingreportsfromeducatorsandfromresearchersinpsychologyandthehumanitiesbearthisout.EnglishliteraturescholarandteacherMarkEdmundsondescribeshowmanycollegestudentsactivelyavoidtheclassicliteratureofthe19thand20thcenturiesinfavourofsomethingsimplerastheynolongerhavethepatiencetoreadlonger,denser,moredifficulttexts.Weshouldbelessconcernedwithstudentscognitiveimpatience,however,thanbywhatmayunderlieit:thepotentialinabilityoflargenumbersofstudentstoreadwithalevelofcriticalanalysissufficienttocomprehendthecomplexityofthoughtandargumentfoundinmoredemandingtexts.Multiplestudiesshowthatdigitalscreenusemaybecausingavarietyoftroublingdownstreameffectsonreadingcomprehensioninolderhighschoolandcollegestudents.InStavanger,Norway,psychologistAnneMangenandhercolleaguesstudiedhowhighschoolstudentscomprehendthesamematerialindifferentmediums.Mangensgroupaskedsubjectsquestionsaboutashortstorywhoseplothaduniversalstudentappeal;halfofthestudentsreadthestoryonatablet,theotherhalfinpaperback.Resultsindicatedthatstudentswhoreadonprintweresuperiorintheircomprehensiontoscreen-readingpeers,particularlyintheirabilitytosequencedetailandreconstructtheplotinchronologicalorder.ZimingLiufromSanJoseStateUniversityhasconductedaseriesofstudieswhichindicatethatthenewnorminreadingisskimming,involvingword-spottingandbrowsingthroughthetext.Manyreadersnowuseapatternwhenreadinginwhichtheysamplethefirstlineandthenword-spotthroughtherestofthetext.Whenthereadingbrainskimslikethis,itreducestimeallocatedtodeepreadingprocesses.Inotherwords,wedonthavetimetograspcomplexity,tounderstandanothersfeelings,toperceivebeauty,andtocreatethoughtsofthereadersown.Thepossibilitythatcriticalanalysis,empathyandotherdeepreadingprocessescouldbecometheunintendedcollateraldamageofourdigitalcultureisnotastraightforwardbinaryissueaboutprintversusdigitalreading.Itisabouthowweallhavebeguntoreadonvariousmediumsandhowthatchangesnotonlywhatweread,butalsothepurposesforwhichweread.Norisitonlyabouttheyoung.Thesubtleatrophyofcriticalanalysisandempathyaffectsusallequally.Itaffectsourabilitytonavigateaconstantbombardmentofinformation.Itincentivizesaretreattothemostfamiliarstoresofuncheckedinformation,whichrequireandreceivenoanalysis,leavingussusceptibletofalseinformationandirrationalideas.Theresanoldruleinneurosciencethatdoesnotalterwithage:useitorloseit.Itisaveryhopefulprinciplewhenappliedtocriticalthoughtinthereadingbrainbecauseitimplieschoice.Thestoryofthechangingreadingbrainishardlyfinished.Wepossessboththescienceandthetechnologytoidentifyandredressthechangesinhowwereadbeforetheybecomeentrenched.Ifweworktounderstandexactlywhatwewilllose,alongsidetheextraordinarynewcapacitiesthatthedigitalworldhasbroughtus,thereisasmuchreasonforexcitementascaution.Question23-26DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeviewsofthewriterinReadingPassage2?Inboxes23-26onyouranswersheet,writeTRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeviewsofthewriterFALSEifthesta26mentcontradictstheviewsofthewriterNOTGIVENifitisimpossibletosaywhatthewriterthinksaboutthis
DriverlesscarsATheautomotivesectoriswellusedtoadaptingtoautomationinmanufacturing.Theimplementationofroboticcarmanufacturefromthe1970sonwardsledtosignificantcostsavingsandimprovementsinthereliabilityandflexibilityofvehiclemassproduction.Anewchallengetovehicleproductionisnowonthehorizonand,again,itcomesfromautomation.However,thistimeitisnottodowiththemanufacturingprocess,butwiththevehiclesthemselves.Researchprojectsonvehicleautomationarenotnew.Vehicleswithlimitedself-drivingcapabilitieshavebeenaroundformorethan50years,resultinginsignificantcontributionstowardsdriverassistancesystems.ButsinceGoogleannouncedin2010thatithadbeentriallingself-drivingcarsonthestreetsofCalifornia,progressinthisfieldhasquicklygatheredpace.BTherearemanyreasonswhytechnologyisadvancingsofast.Onefrequentlycitedmotiveissafety;indeed,researchattheUKsTransportResearchLaboratoryhasdemonstratedthatmorethan90percentofroadcollisionsinvolvehumanerrorasacontributoryfactor,anditistheprimarycauseinthevastmajority.Automationmayhelptoreducetheincidenceofthis.Anotheraimistofreethetimepeoplespenddrivingforotherpurposes.Ifthevehiclecandosomeorallofthedriving,itmaybepossibletobeproductive,tosocialiseorsimplytorelaxwhileautomationsystemshaveresponsibilityforsafecontrolofthevehicle.Ifthevehiclecandothedriving,thosewhoarechallengedbyexistingmobilitymodels-suchasolderordisabledtravellers-maybeabletoenjoysignificantlygreatertravelautonomy.CBeyondthesedirectbenefits,wecanconsiderthewiderimplicationsfortransportandsociety,andhowmanufacturingprocessesmightneedtorespondasaresult.Atpresent,theaveragecarspendsmorethan90percentofitslifeparked.Automationmeansthatinitiativesforcar-sharingbecomemuchmoreviable,particularlyinurbanareaswithsignificanttraveldemand.Ifasignificantproportionofthepopulationchoosetousesharedautomatedvehicles,mobilitydemandcanbemetbyfarfewervehicles.DTheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyinvestigatedautomatedmobilityinSingapore,findingthatfewerthan30percentofthevehiclescurrentlyusedwouldberequirediffullyautomatedcarsharingcouldbeimplemented.Ifthisisthecase,itmightmeanthatweneedtomanufacturefarfewervehiclestomeetdemand.However,thenumberoftripsbeingtakenwouldprobablyincrease,partlybecauseemptyvehicleswouldhavetobemovedfromonecustomertothenext.ModellingworkbytheUniversityofMichiganTransportationResearchInstitutesuggestsautomatedvehiclesmightreducevehicleownershipby43percent,butthatvehiclesaverageannualmileagewoulddoubleasaresult.Asaconsequence,eachvehiclewouldbeusedmoreintensively,andmightneedreplacingsooner.Thisfasterrateofturnovermaymeanthatvehicleproductionwillnotnecessarilydecrease.EAutomationmaypromptotherchangesinvehiclemanufacture.Ifwemovetoamodelwhereconsumersaretendingnottoownasinglevehiclebuttopurchaseaccesstoarangeofvehiclesthroughamobilityprovider,driverswillhavethefreedomtoselectonethatbestsuitstheirneedsforaparticularjourney,ratherthanmakingacompromiseacrossalltheirrequirements.Since,formostofthetime,mostoftheseatsinmostcarsareunoccupied,thismayboostproductionofasmaller,moreefficientrangeofvehiclesthatsuittheneedsofindividuals.Specialisedvehiclesmaythenbeavailableforexceptionaljourneys,suchasgoingonafamilycampingtriporhelpingasonordaughtermovetouniversity.FThereareanumberofhurdlestoovercomeindeliveringautomatedvehiclestoourroads.Theseincludethetechnicaldifficultiesinensuringthatthevehicleworksreliablyintheinfiniterangeoftraffic,weatherandroadsituationsitmightencounter;theregulatorychallengesinunderstandinghowliabilityandenforcementmightchangewhendriversarenolongeressentialforvehicleoperation;andthesocietalchangesthatmayberequiredforcommunitiestotrustandacceptautomatedvehiclesasbeingavaluablepartofthemobilitylandscape.GItsclearthattherearemanychallengesthatneedtobeaddressedbut,throughrobustandtargetedresearch,thesecanmostprobablybeconqueredwithinthenext10years.Mobilitywillchangeinsuchpotentiallysignificantwaysandinassociationwithsomanyothertechnologicaldevelopments,suchastelepresenceandvirtualreality,thatitishardtomakeconcretepredictionsaboutthefuture.However,onethingiscertain:changeiscoming,andtheneedtobeflexibleinresponsetothiswillbevitalforthoseinvolvedinmanufacturingthevehiclesthatwilldeliverfuturemobility.
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Question11-16Labelthemapbelow.Writethecorrectletter,A-H,nexttoQuestions11-16.11café 1112toilets 1213formalgardens 1314outdoorgym 1415skateboardramp 1516wildflowers 16A.AB.BC.CD.DE.EF.FG.GH.HQuestion17-18ChooseTWOletters,A-E.Question19-20ChooseTWOletters,A-E.
Whatisexploration?Weareallexplorers.Ourdesiretodiscover,andthensharethatnew-foundknowledge,ispartofwhatmakesushuman-indeed,thishasplayedanimportantpartinoursuccessasaspecies.Longbeforethefirstcavemanslumpeddownbesidethefireandgruntednewsthattherewereplentyofwildebeestoveryonder,ourancestorshadlearntthevalueofsendingoutscoutstoinvestigatetheunknown.Thisquestingnatureofoursundoubtedlyhelpedourspeciesspreadaroundtheglobe,justasitnowadaysnodoubthelpsthelastnomadicPenanmaintaintheirexistenceinthedepletedforestsofBorneo,andavisitornegotiatethesubwaysofNewYork.Overtheyears,wevecometothinkofexplorersasapeculiarbreed-differentfromtherestofus,differentfromthoseofuswhoaremerelywell-travelled,even;andperhapsthereisatypeofpersonmoresuitedtoseekingoutthenew,atypeofcavemanmoreinclinedtoriskventuringout.That,however,doesnttakeawayfromthefactthatweallhavethisenquiringinstinct,eventoday;andthatinallsortsofprofessions-whetherartist,marinebiologistorastronomer-bordersoftheunknownarebeingtestedeachday.ThomasHardysetsomeofhisnovelsinEgdonHeath,afictionalareaofuncultivatedland,andusedthelandscapetosuggestthedesiresandfearsofhischaracters.Heisdelvingintomattersweallrecognisebecausetheyarecommontohumanity.Thisissurelyanactofexploration,andintoaworldasremoteastheauthorchooses.ExplorerandtravelwriterPeterFlemingtalksofthemomentwhentheexplorerreturnstotheexistencehehasleftbehindwithhislovedones.Thetravellerwhohasforweeksormonthsseenhimselfonlyasapunyandirrelevantaliencrawlinglaboriouslyoveracountryinwhichhehasnorootsandnobackground,suddenlyencountershisotherself,arelativelysolidfigure,withaplaceinthemindsofcertainpeople.Inthisbookabouttheexplorationoftheearthssurface,Ihaveconfinedmyselftothosewhosetravelswererealandwhoalsoaimedatmorethanpersonaldiscovery.Butthatstillleftmewithanotherproblem:thewordexplorerhasbecomeassociatedwithapastera.Wethinkbacktoagoldenage,asifexplorationpeakedsomehowinthe19thcentury-asiftheprocessofdiscoveryisnowonthedecline,thoughthetruthisthatwehavenamedonlyoneandahalfmillionofthisplanetsspecies,andtheremaybemorethan10million-andthatsnotincludingbacteria.Wehavestudiedonly5percentofthespeciesweknow.Wehavescarcelymappedtheoceanfloors,andknowevenlessaboutourselves:wefullyunderstandtheworkingsofonly10percentofourbrains.Hereishowsomeoftodaysexplorersdefinetheword.RanFiennes,dubbedthegreatestlivingexplorer,said,Anexplorerissomeonewhohasdonesomethingthatnohumanhasdonebefore-andalsodonesomethingscientificallyuseful.ChrisBonington,aleadingmountaineer,feltexplorationwastobefoundintheactofphysicallytouchingtheunknown:Youhavetohavegonesomewherenew.ThenRobinHanbury-Tenison,acampaigneronbehalfofremoteso-calledtribalpeoples,said,Atravellersimplyrecordsinformationaboutsomefar-offworld,andreportsback;butanexplorerchangestheworld.WilfredThesiger,whocrossedArabiasEmptyQuarterin1946,andbelongstoaneraofunmechanisedtravelnowlosttotherestofus,toldme,IfIdgoneacrossbycamelwhenIcouldhavegonebycar,itwouldhavebeenastunt.Tohim,explorationmeantbringingbackinformationfromaremoteplaceregardlessofanygreatself-discovery.Eachdefinitionisslightlydifferent-andtendstoreflectthefieldofendeavourofeachpioneer.ItwasthesamewhoeverIasked:theprominenthistorianwouldsayexplorationwasathingofthepast,thecutting-edgescientistwouldsayitwasofthepresent.Andsoon.Theyeachsettheirownparticularcriteria;thecommonfactorintheirapproachbeingthattheyallhad,unlikemanyofuswhosimplyenjoytravelordiscoveringnewthings,bothaverydefiniteobjectivefromtheoutsetandalsoadesiretorecordtheirfindings.Idbestdeclaremyownbias.Asawriter,Iminterestedintheexplorationofideas.Ivedoneagreatmanyexpeditionsandeachonewasunique.Ivelivedformonthsalonewithisolatedgroupsofpeopleallaroundtheworld,eventwouncontactedtribes.Butnoneofthesethingsisoftheslightestinteresttoanyoneunless,throughmybooks,Ivefoundanewslant,exploredanewidea.Why?Becausetheworldhasmovedon.Thetimehaslongpassedforthegreatcontinentalvoyages-anotherwalktothepoles,anothercrossingoftheEmptyQuarter.Weknowhowthelandsurfaceofourplanetlies;explorationofitisnowdowntothedetails-thehabitsofmicrobes,say,orthegrazingbehaviourofbuffalo.Asidefromthedeepseaanddeepunderground,itstheeraofspecialists.However,thisistodisregardtherolethehumanmindhasinconveyingremoteplaces;andthisiswhatinterestsme:howafreshinterpretation,evenofawell-travelledroute,cangiveitsreadersnewinsights.
AttitudestowardsArtificialIntelligenceAArtificialintelligence(AI)canalreadypredictthefuture.Policeforcesareusingittomapwhenandwherecrimeislikelytooccur.Doctorscanuseittopredictwhenapatientismostlikelytohaveaheartattackorstroke.ResearchersareeventryingtogiveAIimaginationsoitcanplanforunexpectedconsequences.Manydecisionsinourlivesrequireagoodforecast,andAIisalmostalwaysbetteratforecastingthanweare.Yetforallthesetechnologicaladvances,westillseemtodeeplylackconfidenceinAIpredictions.RecentcasesshowthatpeopledontlikerelyingonAIandprefertotrusthumanexperts,eveniftheseexpertsarewrong.IfwewantAItoreallybenefitpeople,weneedtofindawaytogetpeopletotrustit.Todothat,weneedtounderstandwhypeoplearesoreluctanttotrustAIinthefirstplace.BTakethecaseofWatsonforOncology,oneoftechnologygiantIBMssupercomputerprograms.TheirattempttopromotethisprogramtocancerdoctorswasaPRdisaster.TheAIpromisedtdelivertop-qualityrecommendationsonthetreatmentof12cancersthataccountedfor80%oftheworldscases.ButwhendoctorsfirstinteractedwithWatson,theyfoundthemselvesinaratherdifficultsituation.Ontheonehand,ifWatsonprovidedguidanceaboutatreatmentthatcoincidedwiththeirownopinions,physiciansdidnotseemuchpointinWatsonsrecommendations.Thesupercomputerwassimplytellingthemwhattheyalreadyknew,andtheserecommendationsdidnotchangetheactualtreatment.Ontheotherhand,ifWatsongeneratedarecommendationthatcontradictedtheexpertsopinion,doctorswouldtypicallyconcludethatWatsonwasntcompetent.Andthemachinewouldntbeabletoexplainwhyitstreatmentwasplausiblebecauseitsmachine-learningalgorithmsweresimplytoocomplextobefullyunderstoodbyhumans.Consequently,thishascausedevenmoresuspicionanddisbelief,leadingmanydoctorstoignoretheseeminglyoutlandishAIrecommendationsandsticktotheirownexpertise.CThisisjustoneexampleofpeopleslackofconfidenceinAIandtheirreluctancetoacceptwhatAIhastooffer.Trustinotherpeopleisoftenbasedonourunderstandingofhowothersthinkandhavingexperienceoftheirreliability.Thishelpscreateapsychologicalfeelingofsafety.AI,ontheotherhand,isstillfairlynewandunfamiliartomostpeople.Evenifitcanbetechnicallyexplained(andthatsnotalwaysthecase),AIsdecision-makingprocessisusuallytoodifficultformostpeopletocomprehend.Andinteractingwithsomethingwedontunderstandcancauseanxietyandgiveusasensethatwerelosingcontrol.ManypeoplearealsosimplynotfamiliarwithmanyinstancesofAIactuallyworking,becauseitoftenhappensinthebackground.Instead,theyareacutelyawareofinstanceswhereAIgoeswrong.EmbarrassingAIfailuresreceiveadisproportionateamountofmediaattention,emphasisingthemessagethatwecannotrelyontechnology.Machinelearningisnotfoolproof,inpartbecausethehumanswhodesignitarent.DFeelingsaboutAIrundeep.Inarecentexperiment,peoplefromarangeofbackgroundsweregivenvarioussci-fifilmsaboutAItowatchandthenaskedquestionsaboutautomationineverydaylife.Itwasfoundthat,regardlessofwhetherthefilmtheywatcheddepictedAIinapositiveornegativelight,simplywatchingacinematicvisionofourtechnologicalfuturepolarisedtheparticipantsattitudes.OptimistsbecamemoreextremeintheirenthusiasmforAIandscepticsbecameevenmoreguarded.ThissuggestspeopleuserelevantevidenceaboutAIinabiasedmannertosupporttheirexistingattitudes,adeep-rootedhumantendencyknownas“confirmationbias”.AsAIisrepresentedmoreandmoreinmediaandentertainment,itcouldleadtoasocietysplitbetweenthosewhobenefitfromAIandthosewhorejectit.Morepertinently,refusingtoaccepttheadvantagesofferedbyAIcouldplacealargegroupofpeopleataseriousdisadvantage.EFortunately,wealreadyhavesomeideasabouthowtoimprovetrustinAI.SimplyhavingpreviousexperiencewithAIcansignificantlyimprovepeoplesopinionsaboutthetechnology,aswasfoundinthestudymentionedabove.Evidencealsosuggeststhemoreyouuseothertechnologiessuchastheinternet,themoreyoutrustthem.AnothersolutionmaybetorevealmoreaboutthealgorithmswhichAIusesandthepurposestheyserve.Severalhigh-profilesocialmediacompaniesandonlinemarketplacesalreadyreleasetransparencyreportsaboutgovernmentrequestsandsurveillancedisclosures.AsimilarpracticeforAIcouldhelppeoplehaveabetterunderstandingofthewayalgorithmicdecisionsaremade.FResearchsuggeststhatallowingpeoplesomecontroloverAIdecision-makingcouldalsoimprovetrustandenableAItolearnfromhumanexperience.Forexample,onestudyshowedthatwhenpeoplewereallowedthefreedomtoslightlymodifyanalgorithm,theyfeltmoresatisfiedwithitsdecisions,morelikelytobelieveitwassuperiorandmorelikelytouseitinthefuture.WedontneedtounderstandtheintricateinnerworkingsofAIsystems,butifpeoplearegivenadegreeofresponsibilityforhowtheyareimplemented,theywillbemorewillingtoacceptAIintotheirlives.Question27-32ReadingPassage3hassixsections,A-F.Choosethecorrectheadingforeachsectionfromthelistofheadingsbelow.Writethecorrectnumber,i-viii,inboxes27-32onyouranswersheet.ListOfHeadingsⅠ.AnincreasingdivergenceofattitudestowardsAlⅡ.ReasonswhywehavemorefaithinhumanjudgementthaninAlⅢ.ThesuperiorityofAlprojectionsoverthosemadebyhumansⅣ.TheprocessbywhichAlcanhelpusmakegooddecisionsⅤ.TheadvantagesofinvolvingusersinAlprocessesⅥ.WidespreaddistrustofanAlinnovationⅦ.EncouragingopennessabouthowAlfunctionsⅧ.AsurprisinglysuccessfulAlapplication
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Question31-40Completethenotesbelow.WriteONEWORDONLYforeachanswer.HealthbenefitsofdanceRecentfindings:•Allformsofdanceproducevarioushormonesassociatedwithfeelingsofhappiness.•Dancingwithothershasamorepositiveimpactthandancingalone.•Anexperimentonuniversitystudentssuggestedthatdanceincreases31 .•Forthosewithmentalillness,dancecouldbeusedasaformof32 .Benefitsofdanceforolderpeople:•accessibleforpeoplewithlowlevelsof33 •reducestheriskofheartdisease•better34 reducestheriskofaccidents•improves35 functionbymakingitworkfaster•improvesparticipantsgeneralwell-being•givespeoplemore36 totakeexercise•canlessenthefeelingof37 ,verycommoninolderpeopleBenefitsofZumba:•AstudyatTheUniversityofWisconsinshowedthatdoingZumbafor40minutesusesupasmany38 asotherquiteintenseformsofexercise.•TheAmericanJournalofHealthBehaviorstudyshowedthat: -womensufferingfrom39 benefitedfromdoingZumba. -Zumbabecamea40 fortheparticipants.
AttitudestowardsArtificialIntelligenceAArtificialintelligence(AI)canalreadypredictthefuture.Policeforcesareusingittomapwhenandwherecrimeislikelytooccur.Doctorscanuseittopredictwhenapatientismostlikelytohaveaheartattackorstroke.ResearchersareeventryingtogiveAIimaginationsoitcanplanforunexpectedconsequences.Manydecisionsinourlivesrequireagoodforecast,andAIisalmostalwaysbetteratforecastingthanweare.Yetforallthesetechnologicaladvances,westillseemtodeeplylackconfidenceinAIpredictions.RecentcasesshowthatpeopledontlikerelyingonAIandprefertotrusthumanexperts,eveniftheseexpertsarewrong.IfwewantAItoreallybenefitpeople,weneedtofindawaytogetpeopletotrustit.Todothat,weneedtounderstandwhypeoplearesoreluctanttotrustAIinthefirstplace.BTakethecaseofWatsonforOncology,oneoftechnologygiantIBMssupercomputerprograms.TheirattempttopromotethisprogramtocancerdoctorswasaPRdisaster.TheAIpromisedtdelivertop-qualityrecommendationsonthetreatmentof12cancersthataccountedfor80%oftheworldscases.ButwhendoctorsfirstinteractedwithWatson,theyfoundthemselvesinaratherdifficultsituation.Ontheonehand,ifWatsonprovidedguidanceaboutatreatmentthatcoincidedwiththeirownopinions,physiciansdidnotseemuchpointinWatsonsrecommendations.Thesupercomputerwassimplytellingthemwhattheyalreadyknew,andtheserecommendationsdidnotchangetheactualtreatment.Ontheotherhand,ifWatsongeneratedarecommendationthatcontradictedtheexpertsopinion,doctorswouldtypicallyconcludethatWatsonwasntcompetent.Andthemachinewouldntbeabletoexplainwhyitstreatmentwasplausiblebecauseitsmachine-learningalgorithmsweresimplytoocomplextobefullyunderstoodbyhumans.Consequently,thishascausedevenmoresuspicionanddisbelief,leadingmanydoctorstoignoretheseeminglyoutlandishAIrecommendationsandsticktotheirownexpertise.CThisisjustoneexampleofpeopleslackofconfidenceinAIandtheirreluctancetoacceptwhatAIhastooffer.Trustinotherpeopleisoftenbasedonourunderstandingofhowothersthinkandhavingexperienceoftheirreliability.Thishelpscreateapsychologicalfeelingofsafety.AI,ontheotherhand,isstillfairlynewandunfamiliartomostpeople.Evenifitcanbetechnicallyexplained(andthatsnotalwaysthecase),AIsdecision-makingprocessisusuallytoodifficultformostpeopletocomprehend.Andinteractingwithsomethingwedontunderstandcancauseanxietyandgiveusasensethatwerelosingcontrol.ManypeoplearealsosimplynotfamiliarwithmanyinstancesofAIactuallyworking,becauseitoftenhappensinthebackground.Instead,theyareacutelyawareofinstanceswhereAIgoeswrong.EmbarrassingAIfailuresreceiveadisproportionateamountofmediaattention,emphasisingthemessagethatwecannotrelyontechnology.Machinelearningisnotfoolproof,inpartbecausethehumanswhodesignitarent.DFeelingsaboutAIrundeep.Inarecentexperiment,peoplefromarangeofbackgroundsweregivenvarioussci-fifilmsaboutAItowatchandthenaskedquestionsaboutautomationineverydaylife.Itwasfoundthat,regardlessofwhetherthefilmtheywatcheddepictedAIinapositiveornegativelight,simplywatchingacinematicvisionofourtechnologicalfuturepolarisedtheparticipantsattitudes.OptimistsbecamemoreextremeintheirenthusiasmforAIandscepticsbecameevenmoreguarded.ThissuggestspeopleuserelevantevidenceaboutAIinabiasedmannertosupporttheirexistingattitudes,adeep-rootedhumantendencyknownas“confirmationbias”.AsAIisrepresentedmoreandmoreinmediaandentertainment,itcouldleadtoasocietysplitbetweenthosewhobenefitfromAIandthosewhorejectit.Morepertinently,refusingtoaccepttheadvantagesofferedbyAIcouldplacealargegroupofpeopleataseriousdisadvantage.EFortunately,wealreadyhavesomeideasabouthowtoimprovetrustinAI.SimplyhavingpreviousexperiencewithAIcansignificantlyimprovepeoplesopinionsaboutthetechnology,aswasfoundinthestudymentionedabove.Evidencealsosuggeststhemoreyouuseothertechnologiessuchastheinternet,themoreyoutrustthem.AnothersolutionmaybetorevealmoreaboutthealgorithmswhichAIusesandthepurposestheyserve.Severalhigh-profilesocialmediacompaniesandonlinemarketplacesalreadyreleasetransparencyreportsaboutgovernmentrequestsandsurveillancedisclosures.AsimilarpracticeforAIcouldhelppeoplehaveabetterunderstandingofthewayalgorithmicdecisionsaremade.FResearchsuggeststhatallowingpeoplesomecontroloverAIdecision-makingcouldalsoimprovetrustandenableAItolearnfromhumanexperience.Forexample,onestudyshowedthatwhenpeoplewereallowedthefreedomtoslightlymodifyanalgorithm,theyfeltmoresatisfiedwithitsdecisions,morelikelytobelieveitwassuperiorandmorelikelytouseitinthefuture.WedontneedtounderstandtheintricateinnerworkingsofAIsystems,butifpeoplearegivenadegreeofresponsibilityforhowtheyareimplemented,theywillbemorewillingtoacceptAIintotheirlives.Question36-40DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeclaimsofthewriterinReadingPassage3?Inboxes36-40onyouranswersheet,writeTRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeclaimsofthewriterFALSEifthestatementcontradictstheclaimsofthewriterNOTGIVENifitisimpossibletosaywhatthewriterthinksaboutthis
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HavingalaughThefindingsofpsychologicalscientistsrevealtheimportanceofhumourHumansstartdevelopingasenseofhumourasearlyassixweeksold,whenbabiesbegintolaughandsmileinresponsetostimuli.Laughterisuniversalacrossallhumanculturesandevenexistsinsomeforminrats,chimps,andbonobos.Likeotherhumanemotionsandexpressions,laughterandhumourprovidepsychologicalscientistswithrichresourcesforstudyinghumanpsychology,rangingfromthedevelopmentoflanguagetotheneuroscienceofsocialperception.Theoriesfocusingontheevolutionoflaughterpointtoitasanimportantadaptationforsocialcommunication.Take,forexample,therecordedlaughterinTVcomedyshows.Backin1950,USsoundengineerCharleyDouglasshateddealingwiththeunpredictablelaughterofliveaudiences,sostartedrecordinghisownlaughtracks.Thesewereintendedtohelppeopleathomefeelliketheywereinasocialsituation,suchasacrowdedtheatre.Douglassevenrecordedvarioustypesoflaughter,aswellasmixturesoflaughterfrommen,women,andchildren.Indoingso,hepickeduponaqualityoflaughterthatisnowinterestingresearchers:asimplehahacommunicatesaremarkableamountofsociallyrelevantinformation.Inonestudyconductedin2016,samplesoflaughterfrompairsofEnglish-speakingstudentswererecordedattheUniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz.Ateammadeupofmorethan30psychologicalscientists,anthropologists,andbiologiststhenplayedtheserecordingstolistenersfrom24diversesocieties,fromindigenoustribesinNewGuineatocity-dwellersinIndiaandEurope.Participantswereaskedwhethertheythoughtthepeoplelaughingwerefriendsorstrangers.Onaverage,theresultswereremarkablyconsistent:worldwide,peopledguesseswerecorrectapproximately60%ofthetime.Researchershavealsofoundthatdifferenttypesoflaughterserveascodestocomplexhumansocialhierarchies.AteamledbyChristopherOveisfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego,foundthathigh-statusindividualshaddifferentlaughsfromlow-statusindividuals,andthatstrangersjudgementsofanindividualssocialstatuswereinfluencedbythedominantorsubmissivequalityoftheirlaughter.Intheirstudy,48malecollegestudentswererandomlyassignedtogroupsoffour,witheachgroupcomposedoftwolow-statusmembers,whohadjustjoinedtheircollegefraternitygroup,andtwohigh-statusmembers,olderstudentswhohadbeenactiveinthefraternityforatleasttwoyears.Laughterwasrecordedaseachstudenttookaturnatbeingteasedbytheothers,involvingtheuseofmildlyinsultingnicknames.Analysisrevealedthat,asexpected,high-statusindividualsproducedmoredominantlaughsandfewersubmissivelaughsrelativetothelow-statusindividuals.Meanwhile,low-statusindividualsweremorelikelytochangetheirlaughterbasedontheirpositionofpower;thatis,thenewcomersproducedmoredominantlaughswhentheywereinthepowerfulroleofteasers.Dominantlaughterwashigherinpitch,louder,andmorevariableintonethansubmissivelaughter.Arandomgroupofvolunteersthenlistenedtoanequalnumberofdominantandsubmissivelaughsfromboththehigh-andlow-statusindividuals,andwereaskedtoestimatethesocialstatusofthelaugher.Inlinewithpredictions,laughersproducingdominantlaughswereperceivedtobesignificantlyhigherinstatusthanlaughersproducingsubmissivelaughs.Thiswasparticularlytrueforlow-statusindividuals,whowereratedassignificantlyhigherinstatuswhendisplayingadominantversussubmissivelaugh,Oveisandcolleaguesnote.Thus,bystrategicallydisplayingmoredominantlaughterwhenthecontextallows,low-statusindividualsmayachievehigherstatusintheeyesofothers.However,high-statusindividualswereratedashigh-statuswhethertheyproducedtheirnaturaldominantlaughortriedtodoasubmissiveone.Anotherstudy,conductedbyDavidChengandLuWangofAustralianNationalUniversity,wasbasedonthehypothesisthathumourmightprovidearespitefromtedioussituationsintheworkplace.Thismentalbreakmightfacilitatethereplenishmentofmentalresources.Totestthistheory,theresearchersrecruited74businessstudents,ostensiblyforanexperimentonperception.First,thestudentsperformedatedioustaskinwhichtheyhadtocrossouteveryinstanceofthelettereovertwopagesoftext.Thestudentsthenwererandomlyassignedtowatchavideoclipelicitingeitherhumour,contentment,orneutralfeelings.SomewatchedaclipoftheBBCcomedyMr.Bean,othersarelaxingscenewithdolphinsswimmingintheocean,andothersafactualvideoaboutthemanagementprofession.Thestudentsthencompletedataskrequiringpersistenceinwhichtheywereaskedtoguessthepotentialperformanceofemployeesbasedonprovidedprofiles,andweretoldthatmaking10correctassessmentsinarowwouldleadtoawin.However,thesoftwarewasprogrammedsuchthatitwasnearlyimpossibletoachieve10consecutivecorrectanswers.Participantswereallowedtoquitthetaskatanypoint.StudentswhohadwatchedtheMr.Beanvideoendedupspendingsignificantlymoretimeworkingonthetask,makingtwiceasmanypredictionsastheothertwogroups.ChengandWangthenreplicatedtheseresultsinasecondstudy,duringwhichtheyhadparticipantscompletelongmultiplicationquestionsbyhand.Again,participantswhowatchedthehumorousvideospentsignificantlymoretimeworkingonthistedioustaskandcompletedmorequestionscorrectlythandidthestudentsineitheroftheothergroups.Althoughhumourhasbeenfoundtohelprelievestressandfacilitatesocialrelationships,thetraditionalviewoftaskperformanceimpliesthatindividualsshouldavoidthingssuchashumourthatmaydistractthemfromtheaccomplishmentoftaskgoals,ChengandWangconclude.Wesuggestthathumourisnotonlyenjoyablebutmoreimportantly,energising.
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