IcontainmultitudesWendyMoorereviewsEdYongsbookaboutmicrobesMicrobes,mostofthembacteria,havepopulatedthisplanetsincelongbeforeanimallifedevelopedandtheywilloutliveus.Invisibletothenakedeye,theyareubiquitous.Theyinhabitthesoil,air,rocksandwaterandarepresentwithineveryformoflife,fromseaweedandcoraltodogsandhumans.And,asYongexplainsinhisutterlyabsorbingandhugelyimportantbook,wemesswiththematourperil.Everyspecieshasitsowncolonyofmicrobes,calledamicrobiome,andthesemicrobesvarynotonlybetweenspeciesbutalsobetweenindividualsandwithindifferentpartsofeachindividual.Whatisamazingisthatwhilethenumberofhumancellsintheaveragepersonisabout30trillion,thenumberofmicrobialonesishigher-about39trillion.Atbest,Yonginformsus,weareonly50percenthuman.Indeed,somescientistsevensuggestweshouldthinkofeachspeciesanditsmicrobesasasingleunit,dubbedaholobiont.Ineachhumantherearemicrobesthatliveonlyinthestomach,themouthorthearmpitandbyandlargetheydosopeacefully.Sobadmicrobesarejustmicrobesoutofcontext.Microbesthatsitcontentedlyinthehumangut(wheretherearemoremicrobesthantherearestarsinthegalaxy)canbecomedeadlyiftheyfindtheirwayintothebloodstream.Thesecommunitiesareconstantlychangingtoo.Therighthandsharesjustonesixthofitsmicrobeswiththelefthand.And,ofcourse,wearesurroundedbymicrobes.Everytimeweeat,weswallowamillionmicrobesineachgramoffood;wearecontinuallyswappingmicrobeswithotherhumans,petsandtheworldatlarge.ItsafascinatingtopicandYong,ayoungBritishsciencejournalist,isanextraordinarilyadeptguide.Writingwithlightnessandpanache,hehasaknackofexplainingcomplexscienceintermsthatarebotheasytounderstandandtotallyenthralling.Yongisonamission.Leadingusgentlybythehand,hetakesusintotheworldofmicrobes-abizarre,alienplanet-inabidtopersuadeustolovethemasmuchashedoes.Bytheend,wedo.Formostofhumanhistorywehadnoideathatmicrobesexisted.ThefirstmantoseetheseextraordinarilypotentcreatureswasaDutchlens-makercalledAntonyvanLeeuwenhoekinthe1670s.Usingmicroscopesofhisowndesignthatcouldmagnifyupto270times,heexaminedadropofwaterfromanearbylakeandfounditteemingwithtinycreatureshecalledanimalcules.ItwasntuntilnearlytwohundredyearslaterthattheresearchofFrenchbiologistLouisPasteurindicatedthatsomemicrobescauseddisease.ItwasPasteursgermtheorythatgavebacteriathepoorimagethatendurestoday.Yongsbookisinmanywaysapleaformicrobialtolerance,pointingoutthatwhilefewerthanonehundredspeciesofbacteriabringdisease,manythousandsmoreplayavitalroleinmaintainingourhealth.Thebookalsoacknowledgesthatourattitudetowardsbacteriaisnotasimpleone.Wetendtoseethedangersposedbybacteria,yetatthesametimewearesoldyoghurtsanddrinksthatsupposedlynurturefriendlybacteria.Inreality,saysYong,bacteriashouldnotbeviewedaseitherfriendsorfoes,villainsorheroes.Insteadweshouldrealisewehaveasymbioticrelationship,thatcanbemutuallybeneficialormutuallydestructive.Whatthendothesemillionsoforganismsdo?Theanswerisprettymucheverything.Newresearchisnowunravellingthewaysinwhichbacteriaaiddigestion,regulateourimmunesystems,eliminatetoxins,producevitamins,affectourbehaviourandevencombatobesity.Theyactuallyhelpusbecomewhoweare,saysYong.Butwearefacingagrowingproblem.Ourobsessionwithhygiene,ouroveruseofantibioticsandourunhealthy,low-fibredietsaredisruptingthebacterialbalanceandmayberesponsibleforsoaringratesofallergiesandimmuneproblems,suchasinflammatoryboweldisease(IBD).Themostrecentresearchactuallyturnsacceptednormsupsidedown.Forexample,therearestudiesindicatingthattheexcessiveuseofhouseholddetergentsandantibacterialproductsactuallydestroysthemicrobesthatnormallykeepthemoredangerousgermsatbay.Otherstudiesshowthatkeepingadogasapetgiveschildrenearlyexposuretoadiverserangeofbacteria,whichmayhelpprotectthemagainstallergieslater.ThereadersofYongsbookmustbepreparedforadecidedlyunglamorousworld.Amongthelessappealingcasestudiesisoneaboutafungusthatiswipingoutentirepopulationsoffrogsandthatcanbehaltedbyararemicrobialbacterium.Anotherisaboutsquidthatcarryluminescentbacteriathatprotectthemagainstpredators.However,ifyoucanovercomeyourdistasteforsomeoftheinvestigations,thereasonsforYongsenthusiasmbecomeclear.Themicrobialworldisaplaceofwonder.Already,inanattempttostopmosquitoesspreadingdenguefever-adiseasethatinfects400millionpeopleayear-mosquitoesarebeingloadedwithabacteriumtoblockthedisease.Inthefuture,ourabilitytomanipulatemicrobesmeanswecouldconstructbuildingswithusefulmicrobesbuiltintotheirwallstofightoffinfections.Justimagineaneonatalhospitalwardcoatedinaspeciallymixedcocktailofmicrobessothatbabiesgetthebeststartinlife.Question14-16Choosethecorrectletter,A,B,CorD.Writethecorrectletterinboxes14-16onyouranswersheet.
【参考范例七】
EnvironmentalpracticesofbigbusinessesTheenvironmentalpracticesofbigbusinessesareshapedbyafundamentalfactthatformanyofusoffendsoursenseofjustice.Dependingonthecircumstances,abusinessmaymaximizetheamountofmoneyitmakes,atleastintheshortterm,bydamagingtheenvironmentandhurtingpeople.Thatisstillthecasetodayforfishermeninanunmanagedfisherywithoutquotas,andforinternationalloggingcompanieswithshort-termleasesontropicalrainforestlandinplaceswithcorruptofficialsandunsophisticatedlandowners.Whengovernmentregulationiseffective,andwhenthepublicisenvironmentallyaware,environmentallycleanbigbusinessesmayout-competedirtyones,butthereverseislikelytobetrueifgovernmentregulationisineffectiveandifthepublicdoesntcare.Itiseasyfortherestofustoblameabusinessforhelpingitselfbyhurtingotherpeople.Butblamingaloneisunlikelytoproducechange.Itignoresthefactthatbusinessesarenotcharitiesbutprofit-makingcompanies,andthatpubliclyownedcompanieswithshareholdersareunderobligationtothoseshareholderstomaximizeprofits,providedthattheydosobylegalmeans.USlawsmakeacompanysdirectorslegallyliableforsomethingtermedbreachoffiduciaryresponsibilityiftheyknowinglymanageacompanyinawaythatreducesprofits.ThecarmanufacturerHenryFordwasinfactsuccessfullysuedbyshareholdersin1919forraisingtheminimumwageOfhisworkersto$5perday:thecourtsdeclaredthat,whilehumanitariansentimentsabouthisemployeeswerenice,hisbusinessexistedtomakeprofitsforitsstockholders.Ourblamingofbusinessesalsoignorestheultimateresponsibilityofthepublicforcreatingtheconditionsthatletabusinessprofitthroughdestructiveenvironmentalpolicies.Inthelongrun,itisthepublic,eitherdirectlyorthroughitspoliticians,thathasthepowertomakesuchdestructivepoliciesunprofitableandillegal,andtomakesustainableenvironmentalpoliciesprofitable.Thepubliccandothatbysuingbusinessesforharmingthem,ashappenedaftertheExxonValdezdisaster,inwhichover40,000m³ofoilwerespilledoffthecoastofAlaska.Thepublicmayalsomaketheiropinionfeltbypreferringtobuysustainablyharvestedproducts;bymakingemployeesofcompanieswithpoortrackrecordsfeelashamedoftheircompanyandcomplaintotheirownmanagement;bypreferringtheirgovernmentstoawardvaluablecontractstobusinesseswithagoodenvironmentaltrackrecord;andbypressingtheirgovernmentstopassandenforcelawsandregulationsrequiringgoodenvironmentalpractices.Inturn,bigbusinessescanexertpowerfulpressureonanysuppliersthatmightignorepublicorgovernmentpressure.Forinstance,aftertheUSpublicbecameconcernedaboutthespreadofadiseaseknownasBSE,whichwastransmittedtohumansthroughinfectedmeat,theUSgovernmentsFoodandDrugAdministrationintroducedrulesdemandingthatthemeatindustryabandonpracticesassociatedwiththeriskofthediseasespreading.Butforfiveyearsthemeatpackersrefusedtofollowthese,claimingthattheywouldbetooexpensivetoobey.However,whenamajorfast-foodcompanythenmadethesamedemandsaftercustomerpurchasesofitshamburgersplummeted,themeatindustrycompliedwithinweeks.Thepublicstaskisthereforetoidentifywhichlinksinthesupplychainaresensitivetopublicpressure:forinstance,fast-foodchainsorjewelrystores,butnotmeatpackersorgoldminers.SomereadersmaybedisappointedoroutragedthatIplacetheultimateresponsibilityforbusinesspracticesharmingthepubliconthepublicitself.Ialsobelievethatthepublicmustacceptthenecessityforhigherpricesforproductstocovertheaddedcosts,ifany,ofsoundenvironmentalpractices.Myviewsmayseemtoignorethebeliefthatbusinessesshouldactinaccordancewithmoralprinciplesevenifthisleadstoareductionintheirprofits.ButIthinkwehavetorecognizethat,throughouthumanhistory,inallpoliticallycomplexhumansocieties,governmentregulationhasarisenpreciselybecauseitwasfoundthatnotonlydidmoralprinciplesneedtobemadeexplicit,theyalsoneededtobeenforced.Tome,theconclusionthatthepublichastheultimateresponsibilityforthebehaviorofeventhebiggestbusinessesisempoweringandhopeful,ratherthandisappointing.Myconclusionisnotamoralisticoneaboutwhoisrightorwrong,admirableorselfish,agoodguyorabadguy.Inthepast,businesseshavechangedwhenthepubliccametoexpectandrequiredifferentbehavior,torewardbusinessesforbehaviorthatthepublicandtomakethingsdifficultforbusinessespracticingbehaviorsthatthepublicdidntwant.Ipredictthatinthefuture,justasinthepast,changesinpublicattitudeswillbeessentialforchangesinbusinessesenvironmentalpractices.
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ChangesinreadinghabitsWhataretheimplicationsofthewaywereadtoday?Lookaroundonyournextplanetrip.TheiPadisthenewpacifierforbabiesandtoddlers.Youngerschool-agedchildrenreadstoriesonsmartphones;olderkidsdontreadatall,buthunchovervideogames.Parentsandotherpassengersreadontabletsorskimaflotillaofemailandnewsfeeds.Unbeknowntomostofus,aninvisible,game-changingtransformationlinkseveryoneinthispicture:theneuronalcircuitthatunderliesthebrainsabilitytoreadissubtly,rapidlychangingandthishasimplicationsforeveryonefromthepre-readingtoddlertotheexpertadult.Asworkinneurosciencesindicates,theacquisitionofliteracynecessitatedanewcircuitinourspeciesbrainmorethan6,000yearsago.Thatcircuitevolvedfromaverysimplemechanismfordecodingbasicinformation,likethenumberofgoatsinonesherd,tothepresent,highlyelaboratedreadingbrain.Myresearchdepictshowthepresentreadingbrainenablesthedevelopmentofsomeofourmostimportantintellectualandaffectiveprocesses:internalizedknowledge,analogicalreasoning,andinference;perspective-takingandempathy;criticalanalysisandthegenerationofinsight.Researchsurfacinginmanypartsoftheworldnowcautionsthateachoftheseessentialdeepreadingprocessesmaybeunderthreataswemoveintodigital-basedmodesofreading.Thisisnotasimple,binaryissueofprintversusdigitalreadingandtechnologicalinnovation.AsMITscholarSherryTurklehaswritten,wedonoterrasasocietywhenweinnovatebutwhenweignorewhatwedisruptordiminishwhileinnovating.Inthishingemomentbetweenprintanddigitalcultures,societyneedstoconfrontwhatisdiminishingintheexpertreadingcircuit,whatourchildrenandolderstudentsarenotdeveloping,andwhatwecandoaboutit.Weknowfromresearchthatthereadingcircuitisnotgiventohumanbeingsthroughageneticblueprintlikevisionorlanguage;itneedsanenvironmenttodevelop.Further,itwilladapttothatenvironmentsrequirements-fromdifferentwritingsystemstothecharacteristicsofwhatevermediumisused.Ifthedominantmediumadvantagesprocessesthatarefast,multi-taskorientedandwell-suitedforlargevolumesofinformation,likethecurrentdigitalmedium,sowillthereadingcircuit.AsUCLApsychologistPatriciaGreenfieldwrites,theresultisthatlessattentionandtimewillbeallocatedtoslower,time-demandingdeepreadingprocesses.Increasingreportsfromeducatorsandfromresearchersinpsychologyandthehumanitiesbearthisout.EnglishliteraturescholarandteacherMarkEdmundsondescribeshowmanycollegestudentsactivelyavoidtheclassicliteratureofthe19thand20thcenturiesinfavourofsomethingsimplerastheynolongerhavethepatiencetoreadlonger,denser,moredifficulttexts.Weshouldbelessconcernedwithstudentscognitiveimpatience,however,thanbywhatmayunderlieit:thepotentialinabilityoflargenumbersofstudentstoreadwithalevelofcriticalanalysissufficienttocomprehendthecomplexityofthoughtandargumentfoundinmoredemandingtexts.Multiplestudiesshowthatdigitalscreenusemaybecausingavarietyoftroublingdownstreameffectsonreadingcomprehensioninolderhighschoolandcollegestudents.InStavanger,Norway,psychologistAnneMangenandhercolleaguesstudiedhowhighschoolstudentscomprehendthesamematerialindifferentmediums.Mangensgroupaskedsubjectsquestionsaboutashortstorywhoseplothaduniversalstudentappeal;halfofthestudentsreadthestoryonatablet,theotherhalfinpaperback.Resultsindicatedthatstudentswhoreadonprintweresuperiorintheircomprehensiontoscreen-readingpeers,particularlyintheirabilitytosequencedetailandreconstructtheplotinchronologicalorder.ZimingLiufromSanJoseStateUniversityhasconductedaseriesofstudieswhichindicatethatthenewnorminreadingisskimming,involvingword-spottingandbrowsingthroughthetext.Manyreadersnowuseapatternwhenreadinginwhichtheysamplethefirstlineandthenword-spotthroughtherestofthetext.Whenthereadingbrainskimslikethis,itreducestimeallocatedtodeepreadingprocesses.Inotherwords,wedonthavetimetograspcomplexity,tounderstandanothersfeelings,toperceivebeauty,andtocreatethoughtsofthereadersown.Thepossibilitythatcriticalanalysis,empathyandotherdeepreadingprocessescouldbecometheunintendedcollateraldamageofourdigitalcultureisnotastraightforwardbinaryissueaboutprintversusdigitalreading.Itisabouthowweallhavebeguntoreadonvariousmediumsandhowthatchangesnotonlywhatweread,butalsothepurposesforwhichweread.Norisitonlyabouttheyoung.Thesubtleatrophyofcriticalanalysisandempathyaffectsusallequally.Itaffectsourabilitytonavigateaconstantbombardmentofinformation.Itincentivizesaretreattothemostfamiliarstoresofuncheckedinformation,whichrequireandreceivenoanalysis,leavingussusceptibletofalseinformationandirrationalideas.Theresanoldruleinneurosciencethatdoesnotalterwithage:useitorloseit.Itisaveryhopefulprinciplewhenappliedtocriticalthoughtinthereadingbrainbecauseitimplieschoice.Thestoryofthechangingreadingbrainishardlyfinished.Wepossessboththescienceandthetechnologytoidentifyandredressthechangesinhowwereadbeforetheybecomeentrenched.Ifweworktounderstandexactlywhatwewilllose,alongsidetheextraordinarynewcapacitiesthatthedigitalworldhasbroughtus,thereisasmuchreasonforexcitementascaution.Question18-22Completethesummaryusingthelistofwords,A-H,below.Writethecorrectletter,A-H,inboxes18-22onyouranswersheet.StudiesondigitalscreenuseTherehavebeenmanystudiesondigitalscreenuse,showingsome 18 trends.PsychologistAnneMangengavehigh-schoolstudentsashortstorytoread,halfusingdigitalandhalfusingprintmediums.Herteamthenusedaquestion-and-answertechniquetofindouthow 19 eachgroupsunderstandingoftheplotwas.Thefindingsshowedaclearpatternintheresponses,withthosewhoreadscreensfindingtheorderofinformation 20 torecall.StudiesbyZimingLiushowthatstudentsaretendingtoread 21 wordsandphrasesinatexttosavetime.Thisapproach,shesays,givesthereaderasuperficialunderstandingofthe 22 contentofmaterial,leavingnotimeforthought.
Apps软件
Question1-10Completethenotesbelow.WriteONEWORDAND/ORANUMBERforeachanswer.CopyingphotostodigitalformatNameofcompany:PicturerepRequirements•Maximumsizeofphotosis30cm,minimumsize4cm.•Photosmustnotbeina 1oranalbum.Cost•Thecostfor360photosis £2(includingonedisk).•Beforethecompletedorderissent,3 isrequired.Servicesincludedintheprice•Photoscanbeplacedinafolder,e.g.withthename4 .•The5 andcontrastcanbeimprovedifnecessary.•Photoswhichareveryfragilewillbescannedby6 .Specialrestoreservice(costsextra)•Itmaybepossibletoremoveanobjectfromaphoto,orchangethe7 .•Aphotowhichisnotcorrectlyin8 cannotbefixed.Otherinformation•Ordersarecompletedwithin9 .•Sendthephotosinabox(not10).
ClimatechangerevealsancientartefactsinNorwaysglaciersAWellabovethetreelineinNorwayshighestmountains,ancientfieldsoficeareshrinkingasEarthsclimatewarms.Astheicehasvanished,ithasbeengivingupthetreasuresithaspreservedincoldstorageforthelast6,000years-itemssuchasancientarrowsandskisfromVikingAge*traders.AndthoseartefactshaveprovidedarchaeologistswithsomesurprisinginsightsintohowancientNorwegiansmadetheirlivings.BOrganicmaterialsliketextilesandhidesarerelativelyrarefindsatarchaeologicalsites.Thisisbecauseunlesstheyreprotectedfromthemicroorganismsthatcausedecay,theytendnottolastlong.Extremecoldisonereliablewaytokeepartefactsrelativelyfreshforafewthousandyears,butoncethawedout,thesematerialsexperiencedegradationrelativelyswiftly.Withclimatechangeshrinkingicecoveraroundtheworld,glacialarchaeologistsneedtoracetheclocktofindnewlyrevealedartefacts,preservethem,andstudythem.Ifsomethingfragiledriesandiswindblownitmightverysoonbelosttoscience,oranarrowmightbeexposedandthencoveredagainbythenextsnowandremainwell-preserved.Theunpredictabilitymeansthatglacialarchaeologistshavetobesystematicintheirapproachtofieldwork.COveranine-yearperiod,ateamofarchaeologists,whichincludedLarsPiløofOpplandCountyCouncil,Norway,andJamesBarrettoftheMcDonaldInstituteforArchaeologicalResearch,surveyedpatchesoficeinOppland,anareaofsouth-centralNorwaythatishometosomeofthecountryshighestmountains.Reindeeroncecongregatedontheseicypatchesinthelatersummermonthstoescapebitinginsects,andfromthelateStoneAge**,huntersfollowed.Inaddition,traderoutesthreadedthroughthemountainpassesofOppland,linkingsettlementsinNorwaytotherestofEurope.Theslowbutsteadymovementofglacierstendstodestroyanythingattheirbases,sotheteamfocusedonstationarypatchesofice,mostlyabove1,400metres.Thaticeisfoundamidfieldsoffrost-weatheredboulders,fallenrocks,andexposedbedrockthatforninemonthsoftheyearisburiedbeneathsnow.“Fieldworkishardwork-hikingwithallourequipment,oftencampingonpermafrost-butveryrewarding.Yourerescuingthearchaeology,bringingthemeltingicetowiderattention,discoveringauniqueenvironmentalhistoryandreallyconnectingwiththenaturalenvironment,saysBarrett.DAttheedgesofthecontractingicepatches,archaeologistsfoundmorethan2,000artefacts,whichformedamaterialrecordthatranfrom4,000BCEtothebeginningsoftheRenaissanceinthe14thcentury.Manyoftheartefactsareassociatedwithhunting.Hunterswouldhaveeasilymisplacedarrowsandtheyoftendiscardedbrokenbowsratherthantakethemallthewayhome.OtheritemscouldhavebeenusedbyhunterstraversingthehighmountainpassesofOppland:all-purposeitemsliketools,skis,andhorsetack.EBarrettsteamradiocarbon-dated153oftheartefactsandcomparedthosedatestothetimingofmajorenvironmentalchangesintheregion-suchasperiodsofcoolingorwarming-andmajorsocialandeconomicshifts-suchasthegrowthoffarmingsettlementsandthespreadofinternationaltradenetworksleadinguptotheVikingAge.Theyfoundthatsomeperiodshadproducedlotsofartefacts,whichindicatesthatpeoplehadbeenprettyactiveinthemountainsduringthosetimes.Buttherewerefewornosignsofactivityduringotherperiods.FWhatwassurprising,accordingtoBarrett,wasthetimingoftheseperiods.Opplandsmountainspresentdauntingterrainandinperiodsofextremecold,glacierscouldblockthehighermountainpassesandmaketravelintheupperreachesofthemountainsextremelydifficult.ArchaeologistsassumedpeoplewouldsticktolowerelevationsduringatimeliketheLateAntiqueLittleIceAge,ashortperiodofdeeper-than-usualcoldfromabout536-600CE.Butitturnedoutthathunterskeptregularlyventuringintothemountainsevenwhentheclimateturnedcold,basedontheamountofstufftheyhadapparentlydroppedthere.Remarkably,though,thefindsfromtheicemayhavecontinuedthroughthisperiod,perhapssuggestingthattheimportanceofmountainhuntingincreasedtosupplementfailingagriculturalharvestsintimesoflowtemperatures,saysBarrett.AcolderturnintheScandinavianclimatewouldlikelyhavemeantwidespreadcropfailures,somorepeoplewouldhavedependedonhuntingtomakeupforthoselosses.GManyoftheartefactsBarrettsteamrecovereddatefromthebeginningoftheVikingAge,the700sthroughtothe900sCE.TradenetworksconnectingScandinaviawithEuropeandtheMiddleEastwereexpandingaroundthistime.AlthoughweusuallythinkofshipswhenwethinkofScandinavianexpansion,theserecentdiscoveriesshowthatplentyofgoodstravelledonoverlandroutes,likethemountainpassesofOppland.AndgrowingNorwegiantowns,alongwithexportmarkets,wouldhavecreatedaboomingdemandforhidestofightoffthecold,aswellasantlerstomakeusefulthingslikecombs.Businessmusthavebeengoodforhunters.HNorwaysmountainsareprobablystillhidingalotofhistory-andprehistory-inremoteicepatches.WhenBarrettsteamlookedatthedatesfortheirsampleof153artefacts,theynoticedagapwithalmostnoartefactsfromabout3,800to2,200BCE.Infact,archaeologicalfindsfromthatperiodarerarealloverNorway.Theresearcherssaythatcouldbebecausemanyofthoseartefactshavealreadydisintegratedorarestillfrozenintheice.Thatmeansarchaeologistscouldbeextractingsomeofthoseartefactsfromretreatingiceinyearstocome.Question14-19ReadingPassage2haseightsections,A-H.Whichsectioncontainsthefollowinginformation?Writethecorrectletter,A-H,inboxes14-19onyouranswersheet.
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TheDesolenator:producingcleanwaterATravellingaroundThailandinthe1990s,WilliamJanssenwasimpressedwiththebasicrooftopsolarheatingsystemsthatwereonmanyhomes,whereenergyfromthesunwasabsorbedbyaplateandthenusedtoheatwaterfordomesticuse.TwodecadeslaterJanssendevelopedthatbasicideahesawinSoutheastAsiaintoaportabledevicethatusesthepowerfromthesuntopurifywater.BTheDesolenatoroperatesasamobiledesalinationunitthatcantakewaterfromdifferentplaces,suchasthesea,rivers,boreholesandrain,andpurifyitforhumanconsumption.Itisparticularlyvaluableinregionswherenaturalgroundwaterreserveshavebeenpolluted,orwhereseawateristheonlywatersourceavailable.JanssensawthattherewasaneedforasustainablewaytocleanwaterinboththedevelopingandthedevelopedcountrieswhenhemovedtotheUnitedArabEmiratesandsawlarge-scalewaterprocessing.IwasconfrontedwiththeenormouscarbonfootprintthattheGulfnationshavebecauseofallofthedesalinationthattheydo,hesays.CTheDesolenatorcanproduce15litresofdrinkingwaterperday,enoughtosustainafamilyforcookinganddrinking.Itsmainsellingpointisthatunlikestandarddesalinationtechniques,itdoesntrequireageneratedpowersupply:justsunlight.Itmeasures120cmby90cm,andiseasytotransport,thankstoitstwowheels.Waterentersthroughapipe,andflowsasathinfilmbetweenasheetofdoubleglazingandthesurfaceofasolarpanel,whereitisheatedbythesun.Thewarmwaterflowsintoasmallboiler(heatedbyasolar-poweredbattery)whereitisconvertedtosteam.Whenthesteamcools,itbecomesdistilledwater.Thedevicehasaverysimplefiltertotrapparticles,andthiscaneasilybeshakentoremovethem.Therearetwotubesforliquidcomingout:oneforthewaste-saltfromseawater,fluoride,etc.-andanotherforthedistilledwater.TheperformanceoftheunitisshownonanLCDscreenandtransmittedtothecompanywhichprovidesservicingwhennecessary.DArecentanalysisfoundthatatleasttwo-thirdsoftheworldspopulationliveswithseverewaterscarcityforatleastamontheveryyear.Janssensaysthatby2030halfoftheworldspopulationwillbelivingwithwaterstress_wherethedemandexceedsthesupplyoveracertainperiodoftime.Itisreallyimportantthatasustainablesolutionisbroughttothemarketthatisabletohelpthesepeople,hesays.Manycountriesdonthavethemoneyfordesalinationplants,whichareveryexpensivetobuild.Theydonthavethemoneytooperatethem,theyareverymaintenanceintensive,andtheydonthavethemoneytobuythedieseltorunthedesalinationplants,soitisareallybadsituation.EThedeviceisaimedatawidevarietyofusers-fromhomeownersinthedevelopingworldwhodonothaveaconstantsupplyofwatertopeoplelivingoffthegridinruralpartsoftheUS.ThefirstcommercialversionsoftheDesolenatorareexpectedtobeinoperationinIndiaearlynextyear,afterfieldtestsarecarriedout.Themarketfortheself-sufficientdevicesindevelopingcountriesistwofold-thosewhocannotaffordthemoneyforthedeviceoutrightandpaythroughmicrofinance,andmiddle-incomehomesthatcanleasetheirownequipment.PeopleinIndiadontpayforafridgeoutright;theypayforitoversixmonths.TheywouldputtheDesolenatorontheirroofandhookituptotheirmunicipalsupplyandtheywouldgetveryreliabledrinkingwateronadailybasis,Janssensays.Inthedevelopedworld,itisaimedatnichemarketswheretapwaterisunavailable-forcamping,onboats,orforthemilitary,forinstance.FPriceswillvaryaccordingtowhereitisbought.Inthedevelopingworld,thepricewilldependonwhatdealaidorganisationscannegotiate.Indevelopedcountries,itislikelytocomeinat$1,000(£685)aunit,saidJanssen.Weareaventurewithasocialmission.Weareawarethattheproductwehaveenvisionedismainlyfindingapplicationinthedevelopingworldandhumanitariansectorandthatthisisthewaywewillproceed.Wedorealise,though,thattobeaviablecompanythereisabottomlinetokeepinmind,hesays.GThecompanyitselfisbasedatImperialCollegeLondon,althoughJanssen,itschiefexecutive,stilllivesintheUAE.Ithasraised£340,000infundingsofar.Withintwoyears,hesays,thecompanyaimstobeselling1,000unitsamonth,mainlyinthehumanitarianfield.TheyareexpectedtobesoldinareassuchasAustralia,northernChile,Peru,TexasandCalifornia.
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Question21-24Choosethecorrectletter,A,BorC.Assignmentonsleepanddreams
【参考范例五】
RomantunnelsTheRomans,whooncecontrolledareasofEurope,NorthAfricaandAsiaMinor,adoptedtheconstructiontechniquesofothercivilizationstobuildtunnelsintheirterritoriesThePersians,wholivedinpresent-dayIran,wereoneofthefirstcivilizationstobuildtunnelsthatprovidedareliablesupplyofwatertohumansettlementsindryareas.IntheearlyfirstmillenniumBCE,theyintroducedtheqanatmethodoftunnelconstruction,whichconsistedofplacingpostsoverahillinastraightline,toensurethatthetunnelkepttoitsroute,andthendiggingverticalshaftsdownintothegroundatregularintervals.Underground,workersremovedtheearthfrombetweentheendsoftheshafts,creatingatunnel.Theexcavatedsoilwastakenuptothesurfaceusingtheshafts,whichalsoprovidedventilationduringthework.Oncethetunnelwascompleted,itallowedwatertoflowfromthetopofahillsidedowntowardsacanal,whichsuppliedwaterforhumanuse.Remarkably,someqanatsbuiltbythePersians2,700yearsagoarestillinusetoday.TheylaterpassedontheirknowledgetotheRomans,whoalsousedtheqanatmethodtoconstructwater-supplytunnelsforagriculture.Romanqanattunnelswereconstructedwithverticalshaftsdugatintervalsofbetween30and60meters.Theshaftswereequippedwithhandholdsandfootholdstohelpthoseclimbinginandoutofthemandwerecoveredwithawoodenorstonelid.Toensurethattheshaftswerevertical,Romanshungaplumblinefromarodplacedacrossthetopofeachshaftandmadesurethattheweightattheendofithunginthecenteroftheshaft.Plumblineswerealsousedtomeasurethedepthoftheshaftandtodeterminetheslopeofthetunnel.The5.6-kilometer-longClaudiustunnel,builtin41CEtodraintheFucineLakeincentralItaly,hadshaftsthatwereupto122metersdeep,took11yearstobuildandinvolvedapproximately30,000workers.Bythe6thcenturyBCE,asecondmethodoftunnelconstructionappearedcalledthecounter-excavationmethod,inwhichthetunnelwasconstructedfrombothends.Itwasusedtocutthroughhighmountainswhentheqanatmethodwasnotapracticalalternative.Thismethodrequiredgreaterplanningandadvancedknowledgeofsurveying,mathematicsandgeometryasbothendsofatunnelhadtomeetcorrectlyatthecenterofthemountain.Adjustmentstothedirectionofthetunnelalsohadtobemadewheneverbuildersencounteredgeologicalproblemsorwhenitdeviatedfromitssetpath.Theyconstantlycheckedthetunnelsadvancingdirection,forexample,bylookingbackatthelightthatpenetratedthroughthetunnelmouth,andmadecorrectionswhenevernecessary.Largedeviationscouldhappen,andtheycouldresultinoneendofthetunnelnotbeingusable.Aninscriptionwrittenonthesideofa428-metertunnel,builtbytheRomansaspartoftheSaldaeaqueductsysteminmodern-dayAlgeria,describeshowthetwoteamsofbuildersmissedeachotherinthemountainandhowthelaterconstructionofalaterallinkbetweenbothcorridorscorrectedtheinitialerror.TheRomansdugtunnelsfortheirroadsusingthecounter-excavationmethod,whenevertheyencounteredobstaclessuchashillsormountainsthatweretoohighforroadstopassover.Anexampleisthe37-meter-long,6-meter-high,FurloPassTunnelbuiltinItalyin69-79CE.Remarkably,amodernroadstillusesthistunneltoday.Tunnelswerealsobuiltformineralextraction.Minerswouldlocateamineralveinandthenpursueitwithshaftsandtunnelsunderground.TracesofsuchtunnelsusedtominegoldcanstillbefoundattheDolaucothiminesinWales.Whenthesolepurposeofatunnelwasmineralextraction,constructionrequiredlessplanning,asthetunnelroutewasdeterminedbythemineralvein.Romantunnelprojectswerecarefullyplannedandcarriedout.Thelengthoftimeittooktoconstructatunneldependedonthemethodbeingusedandthetypeofrockbeingexcavated.Theqanatconstructionmethodwasusuallyfasterthanthecounter-excavationmethodasitwasmorestraightforward.Thiswasbecausethemountaincouldbeexcavatednotonlyfromthetunnelmouthsbutalsofromshafts.Thetypeofrockcouldalsoinfluenceconstructiontimes.Whentherockwashard,theRomansemployedatechniquecalledfirequenchingwhichconsistedofheatingtherockwithfire,andthensuddenlycoolingitwithcoldwatersothatitwouldcrack.Progressthroughhardrockcouldbeveryslow,anditwasnotuncommonfortunnelstotakeyears,ifnotdecades,tobebuilt.ConstructionmarksleftonaRomantunnelinBolognashowthattherateofadvancethroughsolidrockwas30centimetersperday.Incontrast,therateofadvanceoftheClaudiustunnelcanbecalculatedat1.4metersperday.Mosttunnelshadinscriptionsshowingthenamesofpatronswhoorderedconstructionandsometimesthenameofthearchitect.Forexample,the1.4-kilometerÇevliktunnelinTurkey,builttodivertthefloodwaterthreateningtheharboroftheancientcityofSeleuceiaPieria,hadinscriptionsontheentrance,stillvisibletoday,thatalsoindicatethatthetunnelwasstartedin69CEandwascompletedin81CE.Question7-10DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassageI?Inboxes7-10onyouranswersheet,writeTRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeinformationFALSEifthestatementcontradictstheinformationNOTGIVENifthereisnoinformationonthis
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