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SilboGomero—thewhistlelanguageoftheCanaryIslandsLaGomeraisoneoftheCanaryIslandssituatedintheAtlanticOceanoffthenorthwestcoastofAfrica.Thissmallvolcanicislandismountainous,withsteeprockyslopesanddeep,woodedravines,risingto1,487metresatitshighestpeak.Itisalsohometothebestknownoftheworldswhistle‘languages’,ameansoftransmittinginformationoverlongdistanceswhichisperfectlyadaptedtotheextremeterrainoftheisland.This‘language’,knownas‘Silbo’or‘SilboGomero—fromtheSpanishwordfor*whistle—isnowsheddinglightonthelanguage-processingabilitiesofthehumanbrain,accordingtoscientists.ResearcherssaythatSilboactivatespartsofthebrainnormallyassociatedwithspokenlanguage,suggestingthatthebrainisremarkablyflexibleinitsabilitytointerpretsoundsaslanguage.‘Sciencehasdevelopedtheideaofbrainarcasthatarededicatedtolanguage,andwearestartingtounderstandthescopeofsignalsthatcanberecognisedaslanguage,”saysDavidCorina,co-authorofarecentstudyandassociateprofessorofpsychologyattheUniversityofWashingtoninSeattle.SilboisasubstituteforSpanish,withindividualwordsrecodedintowhistleswhichhavehighandlow-frequencytones.Awhistler—orsilbador—putsafingerinhisorhermouthtoincreasethewhistlespitch,whiletheotherhandcanbecuppedtoadjustthedirectionofthesound.“Thereismuchmoreambiguityinthewhistledsignalthaninthespokensignal,”explainsleadrescarcherManuelCarreiras,psychologyprofessorattheUniversityofLaLagunaontheCanaryislandofTenerife.Becausewhistled*words*canbehardtodistinguish,silbadoresrelyonrepetition,aswellasawarenessofcontext,tomakethemselvesunderstood.ThesilbadoresofGomeraarstraditionallyshepherdsandotherisolatedmountainfolk,andtheirnovelmeansofstayingintouchallowsthemtocommunicateoverdistancesofupto10kilometres.Carreirasexplainsthatsilbadoresareabletopassasurprisingamountofinformationviatheirwhistles.*Indailylifetheyusewhistlestocommunicateshortcommands,butanySpanishsentencecouldbewhistled.”Silbohasprovedparticularlyusefulwhenfireshaveoccurredontheislandandrapidcommunicationacrosslargeareashasbeenvital.ThestudyteamusedneuroimagingequipmenttocontrastthebrainactivityofsilbadoreswhilelisteningtowhistledandspokenSpanish.Resultsshowedthelefttemporallobeofthebrain,whichisusuallyassociatedwithspokenlanguage,wasengagedduringtheprocessingofSilbo.Theresearchersfoundthatotherkeyregionsinthebrain’sfrontallobealsorespondedtotheiwhistles,includingthoseactivatedinresponsetosignlanguageamongdeafpeople.Whentheexperimentswererepeatedwithnon-whistlers,however,activationwasobservedinallareasofthebrain.“Ourresultsprovidemoreevidenceabouttheflexibilityofhumancapacityforlanguageinavarietyofforms,”Corinasays.*Thesedatasuggestthatleft-hemispherelanguageregionsareuniquelyadaptedforcommunicativepurposes,independentofthemodalityofsignal.ThenonSilbospeakerswerenotrecognisingSilboasalanguage.Theyhadnothingtograbonto,somultipleareasoftheirbrainswereactivated.”CarreirassaystheoriginsofSilboGomeroremainobscure,butthatindigenousCanaryIslanders,whowereofNorthAfricanorigin,alreadyhadawhistledlanguagewhenSpainconqueredthevolcanicislandsinthe15thcentury.WhistledlanguagessurvivetodayinPapuaNewGuinea,Mexico,Vietnam,Guyana,China,Nepal,Senegal,andafewmountainouspocketsinsouthernEurope.Therearethoughttobeasmanyas70whistledlanguagesstillinuse,thoughonly12havebeendescribedandstudiedscientifically.Thisformofcommunicationisanadaptationfoundamongcultureswherepeopleareoftenisolatedfromeachother,accordingtoJulieniMeyer,aresearcherattheInstituteofHumanSciencesinLyon,France.Theyaremostlyusedinmountainsordenseforests,hesays.Whistledlanguagesarequiteclearlydefinedandrepresentanoriginaladaptationofthespokenlanguagefortheneedsofisolatedhumangroups.Butwithmoderncommunicationtechnologynowwidelyavailable,researcherssaywhistledlanguageslikeSilboarethreatenedwithextinction.WithdwindlingnumbersofGomeraislandersstillfluentinthelanguage,Canariesauthoritiesaretakingstepstotrytoensureitssurvival.Since1999,SilboGomerohasbeentaughtinalloftheisland’selementaryschools.Inaddition,IlocalsareseekingassistancefromtheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO).“Thelocalauthoritiesaretryingtogetanawardfromtheorganisation‘todeclare[SilboGomero]assomethingthatshouldbepreservedforhumanity,Carreirasadds.

Couldurbanengineerslearnfromdance?AThewaywetravelaroundcitieshasamajorimpactonwhethertheyaresustainable.Transportationisestimatedtoaccountfor30%ofenergyconsumptioninmostoftheworldsmostdevelopednations,soloweringtheneedforenergy-usingvehiclesisessentialfordecreasingtheenvironmentalimpactofmobility.Butasmoreandmorepeoplemovetocities,itisimportanttothinkaboutotherkindsofsustainabletraveltoo.Thewayswetravelaffectourphysicalandmentalhealth,oursociallives,ouraccesstoworkandculture,andtheairwebreathe.Engineersaretaskedwithchanginghowwetravelroundcitiesthroughurbandesign,buttheengineeringindustrystillworksontheassumptionsthatledtothecreationoftheenergy-consumingtransportsystemswehavenow:theemphasisplacedsolelyonefficiency,speed,andquantitativedata.Weneedradicalchanges,tomakeithealthier,moreenjoyable,andlessenvironmentallydamagingtotravelaroundcities.BDancemightholdsomeoftheanswers.Thatisnottosuggesteveryoneshoulddancetheirwaytowork,howeverhealthyandhappyitmightmakeus,butratherthatthetechniquesusedbychoreographerstoexperimentwithanddesignmovementindancecouldprovideengineerswithtoolstostimulatenewideasincity-making.RichardSennett,aninfluentialurbanistandsociologistwhohastransformedideasaboutthewaycitiesaremade,arguesthaturbandesignhassufferedfromaseparationbetweenmindandbodysincetheintroductionofthearchitecturalblueprint.CWhereasmedievalbuildersimprovisedandadaptedconstructionthroughtheirintimateknowledgeofmaterialsandpersonalexperienceoftheconditionsonasite,buildingdesignsarenowconceivedandstoredinmediatechnologiesthatdetachthedesignerfromthephysicalandsocialrealitiestheyarecreating.Whilethedesignpracticescreatedbythesenewtechnologiesareessentialformanagingthetechnicalcomplexityofthemoderncity,theyhavethedrawbackofsimplifyingrealityintheprocess.DToillustrate,SennettdiscussesthePeachtreeCenterinAtlanta,USA,adevelopmenttypicalofthemodernistapproachtourbanplanningprevalentinthe1970s.Peachtreecreatedagridofstreetsandtowersintendedasanewpedestrian-friendlydowntownforAtlanta.AccordingtoSennett,thisfailedbecauseitsdesignershadinvestedtoomuchfaithincomputer-aideddesigntotellthemhowitwouldoperate.Theyfailedtotakeintoaccountthatpurpose-builtstreetcafescouldnotoperateinthehotsunwithouttheprotectiveawningscommoninolderbuildings,andwouldneedenergy-consumingairconditioninginstead,orthatitsgiantcarparkwouldfeelsounwelcomingthatitwouldputpeopleoffgettingoutoftheircars.Whatseemsentirelypredictableandcontrollableonscreenhasunexpectedresultswhentranslatedintoreality.EThesameistrueintransportengineering,whichusesmodelstopredictandshapethewaypeoplemovethroughthecity.Again,thesemodelsarenecessary,buttheyarebuiltonspecificworldviewsinwhichcertainformsofefficiencyandsafetyareconsideredandotherexperiencesofthecityignored.Designsthatseemlogicalinmodelsappearcounter-intuitiveintheactualexperienceoftheirusers.TheguardrailsthatwillbefamiliartoanyonewhohasattemptedtocrossaBritishroad,forexample,wereanengineeringsolutiontopedestriansafetybasedonmodelsthatprioritisethesmoothflowoftraffic.Onwidemajorroads,theyoftenguidepedestrianstospecificcrossingpointsandslowdowntheirprogressacrosstheroadbyusingstaggeredaccesspointstodividethecrossingintotwo-oneforeachcarriageway.Indoingsotheymakecrossingsfeellonger,introducingpsychologicalbarriersgreatlyimpactingthosethataretheleastmobile,andencouragingotherstomakedangerouscrossingstogetaroundtheguardrails.Thesebarriersdontjustmakeithardertocrosstheroad:theydividecommunitiesanddecreaseopportunitiesforhealthytransport.Asaresult,manyarenowbeingremoved,causingdisruption,cost,andwaste.FIftheirdesignershadhadthetoolstothinkwiththeirbodies-likedancers-andimaginehowthesebarrierswouldfeel,theremighthavebeenabettersolution.Inordertobringaboutfundamentalchangestothewaysweuseourcities,engineeringwillneedtodeveloparicherunderstandingofwhypeoplemoveincertainways,andhowthismovementaffectsthem.Choreographymaynotseemanobviouschoicefortacklingthisproblem.Yetitshareswithengineeringtheaimofdesigningpatternsofmovementwithinlimitationsofspace.Itisanartformdevelopedalmostentirelybytryingoutideaswiththebody,andgaininginstantfeedbackonhowtheresultsfeel.Choreographershavedeepunderstandingofthepsychological,aesthetic,andphysicalimplicationsofdifferentwaysofmoving.GObservingthechoreographerWayneMcGregor,cognitivescientistDavidKirshdescribedhowhethinkswiththebody.Kirsharguesthatbyusingthebodytosimulateoutcomes,McGregorisabletoimaginesolutionsthatwouldnotbepossibleusingpurelyabstractthought.Thiskindofphysicalknowledgeisvaluedinmanyareasofexpertise,butcurrentlyhasnoplaceinformalengineeringdesignprocesses.Asuggestedmethodfortransportengineersistoimprovisedesignsolutionsandgetinstantfeedbackabouthowtheywouldworkfromtheirownexperienceofthem,ormodeldesignsatfullscaleinthewaychoreographersexperimentwithgroupsofdancers.Aboveall,perhaps,theymightlearntodesignforemotionalaswellasfunctionaleffects.

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ClimatechangerevealsancientartefactsinNorwaysglaciersAWellabovethetreelineinNorwayshighestmountains,ancientfieldsoficeareshrinkingasEarthsclimatewarms.Astheicehasvanished,ithasbeengivingupthetreasuresithaspreservedincoldstorageforthelast6,000years-itemssuchasancientarrowsandskisfromVikingAge*traders.AndthoseartefactshaveprovidedarchaeologistswithsomesurprisinginsightsintohowancientNorwegiansmadetheirlivings.BOrganicmaterialsliketextilesandhidesarerelativelyrarefindsatarchaeologicalsites.Thisisbecauseunlesstheyreprotectedfromthemicroorganismsthatcausedecay,theytendnottolastlong.Extremecoldisonereliablewaytokeepartefactsrelativelyfreshforafewthousandyears,butoncethawedout,thesematerialsexperiencedegradationrelativelyswiftly.Withclimatechangeshrinkingicecoveraroundtheworld,glacialarchaeologistsneedtoracetheclocktofindnewlyrevealedartefacts,preservethem,andstudythem.Ifsomethingfragiledriesandiswindblownitmightverysoonbelosttoscience,oranarrowmightbeexposedandthencoveredagainbythenextsnowandremainwell-preserved.Theunpredictabilitymeansthatglacialarchaeologistshavetobesystematicintheirapproachtofieldwork.COveranine-yearperiod,ateamofarchaeologists,whichincludedLarsPiløofOpplandCountyCouncil,Norway,andJamesBarrettoftheMcDonaldInstituteforArchaeologicalResearch,surveyedpatchesoficeinOppland,anareaofsouth-centralNorwaythatishometosomeofthecountryshighestmountains.Reindeeroncecongregatedontheseicypatchesinthelatersummermonthstoescapebitinginsects,andfromthelateStoneAge**,huntersfollowed.Inaddition,traderoutesthreadedthroughthemountainpassesofOppland,linkingsettlementsinNorwaytotherestofEurope.Theslowbutsteadymovementofglacierstendstodestroyanythingattheirbases,sotheteamfocusedonstationarypatchesofice,mostlyabove1,400metres.Thaticeisfoundamidfieldsoffrost-weatheredboulders,fallenrocks,andexposedbedrockthatforninemonthsoftheyearisburiedbeneathsnow.“Fieldworkishardwork-hikingwithallourequipment,oftencampingonpermafrost-butveryrewarding.Yourerescuingthearchaeology,bringingthemeltingicetowiderattention,discoveringauniqueenvironmentalhistoryandreallyconnectingwiththenaturalenvironment,saysBarrett.DAttheedgesofthecontractingicepatches,archaeologistsfoundmorethan2,000artefacts,whichformedamaterialrecordthatranfrom4,000BCEtothebeginningsoftheRenaissanceinthe14thcentury.Manyoftheartefactsareassociatedwithhunting.Hunterswouldhaveeasilymisplacedarrowsandtheyoftendiscardedbrokenbowsratherthantakethemallthewayhome.OtheritemscouldhavebeenusedbyhunterstraversingthehighmountainpassesofOppland:all-purposeitemsliketools,skis,andhorsetack.EBarrettsteamradiocarbon-dated153oftheartefactsandcomparedthosedatestothetimingofmajorenvironmentalchangesintheregion-suchasperiodsofcoolingorwarming-andmajorsocialandeconomicshifts-suchasthegrowthoffarmingsettlementsandthespreadofinternationaltradenetworksleadinguptotheVikingAge.Theyfoundthatsomeperiodshadproducedlotsofartefacts,whichindicatesthatpeoplehadbeenprettyactiveinthemountainsduringthosetimes.Buttherewerefewornosignsofactivityduringotherperiods.FWhatwassurprising,accordingtoBarrett,wasthetimingoftheseperiods.Opplandsmountainspresentdauntingterrainandinperiodsofextremecold,glacierscouldblockthehighermountainpassesandmaketravelintheupperreachesofthemountainsextremelydifficult.ArchaeologistsassumedpeoplewouldsticktolowerelevationsduringatimeliketheLateAntiqueLittleIceAge,ashortperiodofdeeper-than-usualcoldfromabout536-600CE.Butitturnedoutthathunterskeptregularlyventuringintothemountainsevenwhentheclimateturnedcold,basedontheamountofstufftheyhadapparentlydroppedthere.Remarkably,though,thefindsfromtheicemayhavecontinuedthroughthisperiod,perhapssuggestingthattheimportanceofmountainhuntingincreasedtosupplementfailingagriculturalharvestsintimesoflowtemperatures,saysBarrett.AcolderturnintheScandinavianclimatewouldlikelyhavemeantwidespreadcropfailures,somorepeoplewouldhavedependedonhuntingtomakeupforthoselosses.GManyoftheartefactsBarrettsteamrecovereddatefromthebeginningoftheVikingAge,the700sthroughtothe900sCE.TradenetworksconnectingScandinaviawithEuropeandtheMiddleEastwereexpandingaroundthistime.AlthoughweusuallythinkofshipswhenwethinkofScandinavianexpansion,theserecentdiscoveriesshowthatplentyofgoodstravelledonoverlandroutes,likethemountainpassesofOppland.AndgrowingNorwegiantowns,alongwithexportmarkets,wouldhavecreatedaboomingdemandforhidestofightoffthecold,aswellasantlerstomakeusefulthingslikecombs.Businessmusthavebeengoodforhunters.HNorwaysmountainsareprobablystillhidingalotofhistory-andprehistory-inremoteicepatches.WhenBarrettsteamlookedatthedatesfortheirsampleof153artefacts,theynoticedagapwithalmostnoartefactsfromabout3,800to2,200BCE.Infact,archaeologicalfindsfromthatperiodarerarealloverNorway.Theresearcherssaythatcouldbebecausemanyofthoseartefactshavealreadydisintegratedorarestillfrozenintheice.Thatmeansarchaeologistscouldbeextractingsomeofthoseartefactsfromretreatingiceinyearstocome.

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RomanshipbuildingandnavigationShipbuildingtodayisbasedonscienceandshipsarebuiltusingcomputersandsophisticatedtools.ShipbuildinginancientRome,however,wasmoreofanartrelyingonestimation,inheritedtechniquesandpersonalexperience.TheRomanswerenottraditionallysailorsbutmostlyland-basedpeople,wholearnedtobuildshipsfromthepeoplethattheyconquered,namelytheGreeksandtheEgyptians.ThereareafewsurvivingwrittendocumentsthatgivedescriptionsandrepresentationsofancientRomanships,includingthesailsandrigging.Excavatedvesselsalsoprovidesomecluesaboutancientshipbuildingtechniques.StudiesofthesehavetaughtusthatancientRomanshipbuildersbuilttheouterhullfirst,thenproceededwiththeframeandtherestoftheship.Planksusedtobuildtheouterhullwereinitiallysewntogether.Startingfromthe6thcenturyBCE,theywerefixedusingamethodcalledmortiseandtenon,wherebyoneplanklockedintoanotherwithouttheneedforstitching.Theninthefirstcenturiesofthecurrentera,Mediterraneanshipbuildersshiftedtoanothershipbuildingmethod,stillinusetoday,whichconsistedofbuildingtheframefirstandthenproceedingwiththehullandtheothercomponentsoftheship.Thismethodwasmoresystematicanddramaticallyshortenedshipconstructiontimes.TheancientRomansbuiltlargemerchantshipsandwarshipswhosesizeandtechnologywereunequalleduntilthe16thcenturyCE.Warshipswerebuilttobelightweightandveryspeedy.Theyhadtobeabletosailnearthecoast,whichiswhytheyhadnoballastorexcessloadandwerebuiltwithalong,narrowhull.Theydidnotsinkwhendamagedandoftenwouldliecrippledontheseassurfacefollowingnavalbattles.Theyhadabronzebatteringram,whichwasusedtopiercethetimberhullsorbreaktheoarsofenemyvessels.Warshipsusedbothwind(sails)andhumanpower(oarsmen)andwerethereforeveryfast.Eventually,RomesnavybecamethelargestandmostpowerfulintheMediterranean,andtheRomanshadcontroloverwhattheythereforecalledMareNostrummeaningoursea.Thereweremanykindsofwarship.Thetriremewasthedominantwarshipfromthe7thto4thcenturyBCE.Ithadrowersinthetop,middleandlowerlevels,andapproximately50rowersineachbank.Therowersatthebottomhadthemostuncomfortablepositionastheywereundertheotherrowersandwereexposedtothewaterenteringthroughtheoar-holes.Itisworthnotingthatcontrarytopopularperception,rowerswerenotslavesbutmostlyRomancitizensenrolledinthemilitary.Thetriremewassupersededbylargershipswithevenmorerowers.Merchantshipswerebuilttotransportlotsofcargooverlongdistancesandatareasonablecost.Theyhadawiderhull,doubleplankingandasolidinteriorforaddedstability.Unlikewarships,theirV-shapedhullwasdeepunderwater,meaningthattheycouldnotsailtooclosetothecoast.Theyusuallyhadtwohugesiderudderslocatedoffthesternandcontrolledbyasmalltillerbarconnectedtoasystemofcables.Theyhadfromonetothreemastswithlargesquaresailsandasmalltriangularsailatthebow.Justlikewarships,merchantshipsusedoarsmen,butcoordinatingthehundredsofrowersinbothtypesofshipwasnotaneasytask.Inordertoassistthem,musicwouldbeplayedonaninstrument,andoarswouldthenkeeptimewiththis.Thecargoonmerchantshipsincludedrawmaterials(e.g.ironbars,copper,marbleandgranite),andagriculturalproducts(e.g.grainfromEgyptsNilevalley).DuringtheEmpire,Romewasahugecitybyancientstandardsofaboutonemillioninhabitants.GoodsfromallovertheworldwouldcometothecitythroughtheportofPozzuolisituatedwestofthebayofNaplesinItalyandthroughthegiganticportofOstiasituatedatthemouthoftheTiberRiver.Largemerchantshipswouldapproachthedestinationportand,justliketoday,beinterceptedbyanumberoftowboatsthatwoulddragthemtothequay.Thetimeoftravelalongthemanysailingroutescouldvarywidely.NavigationinancientRomedidnotrelyonsophisticatedinstrumentssuchascompassesbutonexperience,localknowledgeandobservationofnaturalphenomena.Inconditionsofgoodvisibility,seamenintheMediterraneanoftenhadthemainlandorislandsinsight,whichgreatlyfacilitatednavigation.Theysailedbynotingtheirpositionrelativetoasuccessionofrecognisablelandmarks.Whenweatherconditionswerenotgoodorwherelandwasnolongervisible,Romanmarinersestimateddirectionsfromthepolestaror,withlessaccuracy,fromtheSunatnoon.Theyalsoestimateddirectionsrelativetothewindandswell.Overall,shippinginancientRomantimesresembledshippingtodaywithlargevesselsregularlycrossingtheseasandbringingsuppliesfromtheirEmpire.Question6-13Completethesummarybelow.ChooseONEWORDONLYfromthepassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes6-13onyouranswersheet.WarshipsandmerchantshipsWarshipsweredesignedsothattheywere　6　andmovedquickly.Theyoftenremainedafloatafterbattlesandwereabletosailclosetolandastheylackedanyadditionalweight.Abatteringrammadeof　7　wasincludedinthedesignforattackinganddamagingthetimberandoarsofenemyships.Warships,suchasthetrireme,hadrowersonthreedifferent8　.Unlikewarships,merchantshipshadabroad9　　thatlayfarbelowthesurfaceofthesea.Merchantshipsweresteeredthroughthewaterwiththehelpoflargeruddersandatillerbar.Theyhadbothsquareand10　sails.Onmerchantshipsandwarships,11　　wasusedtoensurerowersmovedtheiroarsinandoutofthewateratthesametime.Quantitiesofagriculturalgoodssuchas12　　weretransportedbymerchantshipstotwomainportsinItaly.Theshipswerepulledtotheshoreby13　.Whentheweatherwasclearandtheycouldseeislandsorland,sailorsusedlandmarksthattheyknewtohelpthemnavigatetheirroute.

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PeopleandOrganisations:theSelectionIssue　　AIn1991,accordingtotheDepartmentofTradeandIndustry,arecord48,000Britishcompanieswentoutofbusiness.Whenbusinessesfail,thepost-mortemanalysisistraditionallyundertakenbyaccountantsandmarketstrategists.Unarguablyorganisationsdofailbecauseofundercapitalization,poorfinancialmanagement,andadversemarketconditionsetc.Yet,conversely,organisationswithsoundfinancialbacking,goodproductideasandmarketacumenoftenunderperformandfailtomeetshareholders’expectations.Thecomplexity,degreeandsustainmentoforganizationalperformancerequireanexplanationwhichgoesbeyondthebalancesheetandthe“paperconversion”offinancialinputsintoprofitmakingoutputs.Amorecompleteexplanationof“whatwentwrong”necessarilymustconsidertheessenceofwhatanorganizationactuallyisandthatoneofthefinancialinputs,themostimportantandoftenthemostexpensive,ispeople.　　BAnorganizationisonlyasgoodasthepeopleitemploys.Selectingtherightpersonforthejobinvolvesmorethanidentifyingtheessentialordesirablerangeofskills,educationalandprofessionalqualificationsnecessarytoperformthejobandthenrecruitingthecandidatewhoismostlikelytopossesstheseskillsoratleastisperceivedtohavetheabilityandpredispositiontoacquirethem.Thisisapurelyperson/skillsmatchapproachtoselection.　　CWorkinvariablytakesplaceinthepresenceand/orunderthedirectionofothers,inaparticularorganizationalsetting.Theindividualhasto“fit”inwiththeworkenvironment,withotheremployees,withtheorganizationalclimate,styleofwork,organizationandcultureoftheorganization.Differentorganisationshavedifferentcultures.WorkingasanengineeratBritishAerospacewillnotnecessarilybeasimilarexperiencetoworkinginthesamecapacityatGECorPlessey.　　DPoorselectiondecisionsareexpensive.Forexample,thecostsoftrainingapolicemanareabout20,000.Thecostsofemployinganunsuitabletechnicianonanoilrigorinanuclearplantcould,inanemergency,resultinmillionsofpoundsofdamageorlossoflife.Thedisharmonyofapoorperson-environmentfit(PE-fit)islikelytoresultinlowjobsatisfaction,lackoforganizationalcommitmentandemployeestress,whichaffectorganizationaloutcomesi.e.productivity,highlaborturnoverandabsenteeism,andindividualoutcomesi.e.physical,psychologicalandmentalwell-being.　　EHowever,despitetheimportanceoftherecruitmentdecisionandtherangeofsophisticatedandmoreobjectiveselectiontechniquesavailable,includingtheuseofpsychometrictests,assessmentcentresetc.,manyorganisationsarestillpreparedtomakethisdecisiononthebasisofasingle30to45minuteunstructuredinterview.Indeed,researchhasdemonstratedthataselectiondecisionisoftenmadewithinthefirstfourminutesoftheinterview.Intheremainingtime,theinterviewerthenattendsexclusivelytoinformationthatreinforcestheinitial“accept”or“reject”decision.Researchintothevalidityofselectionmethodshasconsistentlydemonstratedthattheunstructuredinterview,wheretheinterviewerasksanyquestionsheorshelikes,isapoorpredictoroffuturejobperformanceandfareslittlebetterthanmorecontroversialmethodslikegraphologyandastrology.Intimesofhighunemployment,recruitmentbecomesa“buyer’smarket”andthiswasthecaseinBritainduringthe1980s.　　FThefuture,wearetold,islikelytobedifferent.DetailedsurveysofsocialandeconomictrendsintheEuropeanCommunityshowthatEurope’spopulationisfallingandgettingolder.ThebirthrateintheCommunityisnowonlythree-quartersofthelevelneededtoensurereplacementoftheexistingpopulation.Bytheyear2020,itispredictedthatmorethanoneinfourEuropeanswillbeaged60ormoreandbarelyoneinfivewillbeunder20.Inafive-yearperiodbetween1983and1988theCommunity’sfemaleworkforcegrewbyalmostsixmillion.Asaresult,51%ofallwomenaged14to64arenoweconomicallyactiveinthelabormarketcomparedwith78%ofmen.　　GThechangingdemographicswillnotonlyaffectselectionratios.Theywillalsomakeitincreasinglyimportantfororganisationswishingtomaintaintheircompetitiveedgetobemoreresponsiveandaccommodatingtothechangingneedsoftheirworkforceiftheyaretoretainanddeveloptheirhumanresources.Moreflexibleworkinghours,theopportunitytoworkfromhomeorjobshare,theprovisionofchildcarefacilitiesetc.,willplayamajorroleinattractingandretainingstaffinthefuture.　　Completethetablebelowwithwordstakenfromthepassage.　　UseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSforeachanswer.　　Writeyouranswersinboxes1-4onyouranswersheet.

TheStepPyramidofDjoserAThepyramidsarethemostfamousmonumentsofancientEgyptandstillholdenormousinterestforpeopleinthepresentday.Thesegrand,impressivetributestothememoryoftheEgyptiankingshavebecomelinkedwiththecountryeventhoughothercultures,suchastheChineseandMayan,alsobuiltpyramids.Theevolutionofthepyramidformhasbeenwrittenandarguedaboutforcenturies.However,thereisnoquestionthat,asfarasEgyptisconcerned,itbeganwithonemonumenttoonekingdesignedbyonebrilliantarchitect:theStepPyramidofDjoseratSaqqara.BDjoserwasthefirstkingoftheThirdDynastyofEgyptandthefirsttobuildinstone.PriortoDjosersreign,tombswererectangularmonumentsmadeofdriedclaybrick,whichcoveredundergroundpassageswherethedeceasedpersonwasburied.Forreasonswhichremainunclear,Djosersmainofficial,whosenamewasImhotep,conceivedofbuildingataller,moreimpressivetombforhiskingbystackingstoneslabsontopofoneanother,progressivelymakingthemsmaller,toformtheshapenowknownastheStepPyramid.Djoseristhoughttohavereignedfor19years,butsomehistoriansandscholarsattributeamuchlongertimeforhisrule,owingtothenumberandsizeofthemonumentshebuilt.CTheStepPyramidhasbeenthoroughlyexaminedandinvestigatedoverthelastcentury,anditisnowknownthatthebuildingprocesswentthroughmanydifferentstages.HistorianMarcVandeMieroopcommentsonthis,writingMuchexperimentationwasinvolved,whichisespeciallyclearintheconstructionofthepyramidinthecenterofthecomplex.Ithadseveralplans...beforeitbecamethefirstStepPyramidinhistory,pilingsixlevelsontopofoneanother...Theweightoftheenormousmasswasachallengeforthebuilders,whoplacedthestonesataninwardinclineinordertopreventthemonumentbreakingup.DWhenfinallycompleted,theStepPyramidrose62metershighandwasthetalleststructureofitstime.ThecomplexinwhichitwasbuiltwasthesizeofacityinancientEgyptandincludedatemple,courtyards,shrines,andlivingquartersforthepriests.Itcoveredaregionof16hectaresandwassurroundedbyawall10.5metershigh.Thewallhad13falsedoorscutintoitwithonlyonetrueentrancecutintothesouth-eastcorner;theentirewallwasthenringedbyatrench750meterslongand40meterswide.Thefalsedoorsandthetrenchwereincorporatedintothecomplextodiscourageunwantedvisitors.Ifsomeonewishedtoenter,heorshewouldhaveneededtoknowinadvancehowtofindthelocationofthetrueopeninginthewall.DjoserwassoproudofhisaccomplishmentthathebrokethetraditionofhavingonlyhisownnameonthemonumentandhadImhotepsnamecarvedonitaswell.ETheburialchamberofthetomb,wherethekingsbodywaslaidtorest,wasdugbeneaththebaseofthepyramid,surroundedbyavastmazeoflongtunnelsthathadroomsoffthemtodiscouragerobbers.Oneofthemostmysteriousdiscoveriesfoundinsidethepyramidwasalargenumberofstonevessels.Over40,000ofthesevessels,ofvariousformsandshapes,werediscoveredinstoreroomsoffthepyramidsundergroundpassages.TheyareinscribedwiththenamesofrulersfromtheFirstandSecondDynastiesofEgyptandmadefromdifferentkindsofstone.ThereisnoagreementamongscholarsandarchaeologistsonwhythevesselswereplacedinthetombofDjoserorwhattheyweresupposedtorepresent.ThearchaeologistJean-PhilippeLauer,whoexcavatedmostofthepyramidandcomplex,believestheywereoriginallystoredandthengivenaproperburialbyDjoserinhispyramidtohonorhispredecessors.Thereareotherhistorians,however,whoclaimthevesselsweredumpedintotheshaftsasyetanotherattempttopreventgraverobbersfromgettingtothekingsburialchamber.FUnfortunately,alloftheprecautionsandintricatedesignoftheundergroundnetworkdidnotpreventancientrobbersfromfindingawayin.Djosersgravegoods,andevenhisbody,werestolenatsomepointinthepastandallarchaeologistsfoundwereasmallnumberofhisvaluablesoverlookedbythethieves.Therewasenoughleftthroughoutthepyramidanditscomplex,however,toastonishandamazethearchaeologistswhoexcavatedit.GEgyptologistMiroslavVernerwrites,FewmonumentsholdaplaceinhumanhistoryassignificantasthatoftheStepPyramidinSaqqara...ItcanbesaidwithoutexaggerationthatthispyramidcomplexconstitutesamilestoneintheevolutionofmonumentalstonearchitectureinEgyptandintheworldasawhole.TheStepPyramidwasarevolutionaryadvanceinarchitectureandbecamethearchetypewhichalltheothergreatpyramidbuildersofEgyptwouldfollow.Question14-20ReadingPassage2hassevenparagraphs,A-G.Choosethecorrectheadingforeachparagraphfromthelistofheadingsbelow.Writethecorrectletter,i-ix,inboxes14-20onyouranswersheet.ListofHeadingsⅠ.TheareasandartefactswithinthepyramiditselfⅡ.AdifficulttaskforthoseinvolvedⅢ.AkingwhosavedhispeopleⅣ.AsinglecertaintyamongotherlessdefinitefactsⅤ.AnoverviewoftheexternalbuildingsandareasⅥ.ApyramiddesignthatotherscopiedⅦ.AnideaforchangingthedesignofburialstructuresⅧ.AnincredibleexperiencedespitethefewremainsⅨ.Theanswerstosomeunexpectedquestions

Question21-22ChooseTWOletters,A-E.Question23-24ChooseTWOletters,A-E.Question25-30WhattopicdoCathyandGrahamchoosetoillustratewitheachnovel?ChooseSIXanswersfromtheboxandwritethecorrectletter,A-H,nexttoQuestions25-30.25ThePickwickPapers　25　26OliverTwist　26　27NicholasNickleby　27　28MartinChuzzlewit　28　29BleakHouse　29　30LittleDorrit　30　TopicsA.povertyB.educationC.DickenstravelsD.entertainmentE.crimeandthelawF.wealthG.medicineH.awomanslife

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TheWhiteHorseofUffingtonThecuttingofhugefiguresorgeoglyphsintotheearthofEnglishhillsideshastakenplaceformorethan3,000years.Thereare56hillfiguresscatteredaroundEngland,withthevastmajorityonthechalkdownlandsofthecountryssoutherncounties.Thefiguresincludegiants,horses,crossesandregimentalbadges.Althoughthemajorityofthesegeoglyphsdatewithinthelast300yearsorso,thereareoneortwothataremucholder.Themostfamousofthesefiguresisperhapsalsothemostmysterious-theUffingtonWhiteHorseinOxfordshire.TheWhiteHorsehasrecentlybeenre-datedandshowntobeevenolderthanitspreviouslyassignedancientpre-RomanIronAge*date.MorecontroversialisthedateoftheenigmaticLongManofWilmingtoninSussex.Whilemanyhistoriansareconvincedthefigureisprehistoric,othersbelievethatitwastheworkofanartisticmonkfromanearbyprioryandwascreatedbetweenthe11thand15thcenturies.Themethodofcuttingthesehugefigureswassimplytoremovetheoverlyinggrasstorevealthegleamingwhitechalkbelow.However,thegrasswouldsoongrowoverthegeoglyphagainunlessitwasregularlycleanedorscouredbyafairlylargeteamofpeople.Onereasonthatthevastmajorityofhillfigureshavedisappearedisthatwhenthetraditionsassociatedwiththefiguresfaded,peoplenolongerbotheredorrememberedtoclearawaythegrasstoexposethechalkoutline.Furthermore,overhundredsofyearstheoutlineswouldsometimeschangeduetopeoplenotalwayscuttinginexactlythesameplace,thuscreatingadifferentshapetotheoriginalgeoglyph.ThefactthatanyancienthillfiguressurviveatallinEnglandtodayistestamenttothestrengthandcontinuityoflocalcustomsandbeliefswhich,inonecaseatleast,muststretchbackovermillennia.TheUffingtonWhiteHorseisaunique,stylisedrepresentationofahorseconsistingofalong,sleekback,thindisjointedlegs,astreamingtail,andabird-likebeakedhead.Theelegantcreaturealmostmeltsintothelandscape.Thehorseissituated2.5kmfromUffingtonvillageonasteepslopeclosetotheLateBronzeAge*(c.7thcenturyBCE)hillfortofUffingtonCastleandbelowtheRidgeway,along-distanceNeolithic**track.TheUffingtonHorseisalsosurroundedbyBronzeAgeburialmounds.ItisnotfarfromtheBronzeAgecemeteryofLambournSevenBarrows,whichconsistsofmorethan30well-preservedburialmounds.Thecarvinghasbeenplacedinsuchawayastomakeitextremelydifficulttoseefromclosequarters,andlikemanygeoglyphsisbestappreciatedfromtheair.Nevertheless,therearecertainareasoftheValeoftheWhiteHorse,thevalleycontainingandnamedaftertheenigmaticcreature,fromwhichanadequateimpressionmaybegained.Indeedonacleardaythecarvingcanbeseenfromupto30kmaway.TheearliestevidenceofahorseatUffingtonisfromthe1070sCEwhenWhiteHorseHillismentionedindocumentsfromthenearbyAbbeyofAbingdon,andthefirstreferencetothehorseitselfissoonafter,in1190CE.However,thecarvingisbelievedtodatebackmuchfurtherthanthat.DuetothesimilarityoftheUffingtonWhiteHorsetothestyliseddepictionsofhorseson1stcenturyBCEcoins,ithadbeenthoughtthatthecreaturemustalsodatetothatperiod.However,in1995OpticallyStimulatedLuminescence(OSL)testingwascarriedoutbytheOxfordArchaeologicalUnitonsoilfromtwoofthelowerlayersofthehorsesbody,andfromanothercutnearthebase.Theresultwasadateforthehorsesconstructionsomewherebetween1400and600BCE-inotherwords,ithadaLateBronzeAgeorEarlyIronAgeorigin.ThelatterendofthisdaterangewouldtiethecarvingofthehorseinwithoccupationofthenearbyUffingtonhillfort,indicatingthatitmayrepresentatribalemblemmarkingthelandoftheinhabitantsofthehillfort.Alternatively,thecarvingmayhavebeencarriedoutduringaBronzeorIronAgeritual.SomeresearchersseethehorseasrepresentingtheCeltic***horsegoddessEpona,whowasworshippedasaprotectorofhorses,andforherassociationswithfertility.However,thecultofEponawasnotimportedfromGaul(France)untilaroundthefirstcenturyCE.ThisdateisatleastsixcenturiesaftertheUffingtonHorsewasprobablycarved.Nevertheless,thehorsehadgreatritualandeconomicsignificanceduringtheBronzeandIronAges,asattestedbyitsdepictionsonjewelleryandothermetalobjects.Itispossiblethatthecarvingrepresentsagoddessinnativemythology,suchasRhiannon,describedinlaterWelshmythologyasabeautifulwomandressedingoldandridingawhitehorse.Thefactthatgeoglyphscandisappeareasily,alongwiththeirassociatedritualsandmeaning,indicatesthattheywereneverintendedtobeanythingmorethantemporarygestures.Butthisdoesnotlessentheirimportance.Thesegiantcarvingsareafascinatingglimpseintothemindsoftheircreatorsandhowtheyviewedthelandscapeinwhichtheylived.Question9-13Completethenotesbelow.ChooseONEWORDONLYfromthepassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes9-13onyouranswersheet.TheUffingtonWhiteHouseThelocationoftheUffingtonWhiteHorse:adistanceof2.5kmfromUffingtonvillagenearanancientroadknownasthe　9closetoanancientcemeterythathasanumberofburialmoundsDatingtheUffingtonWhiteHorse:firstreferencetoWhiteHorseHillappearsin10　fromthe1070shorsesshownoncoinsfromtheperiod100BCE-1BCEaresimilarinappearanceaccordingtoanalysisofthesurrounding11,theHorseisLateBronzeAge/EarlyIronAgePossiblereasonsforcreationoftheUffingtonWhiteHorse:anemblemtoindicatelandownershipformedpartofanancientritualwasarepresentationofgoddessEpona-associatedwithprotectionofhorsesand　12wasarepresentationofaWelshgoddesscalled　13

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