填空题The use of solar power grew by 60% between the year 2000 and the year 2004.

填空题It would be a good idea to specify the role definitions of soldiers more clearly.

填空题In Los Angeles ______ are down over 50%.

填空题Questions 24-26 Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 24-26 on your answer sheet.

填空题The textile collection of the Department of Ethnography is the largest in the world.

填空题{{B}}SECTION 2: QUESTIONS 11-20{{/B}} Questions 11-13 Choose the correct letter from A-C for each answer.

填空题Complete the notes below.Write ONE WORD ONLY for each answer.Chimpanzee BehavioursSpecies We can find Pan or Pan Troglodytes in West and Central Africa. The Bonobo or Pan Paniscus are found in Democratic Republic of Congo.Current research rule out 【L31】______and biological factors learn through 【L32】______of other chimps' behaviourDiscoveries The book The Third Chimpanzee by James Diamond discusses some physical features of chimpanzees. The discovery reported by Jane Goodall suggests that chimpanzees know how to use 【L33】______Chimpanzees in Senegal use spears sharpened with their teeth can 【L34】______the shell of a coconut use a 【L35】______hammer to crash nuts are capable of learning 【L36】______and understanding human languageSub-species Bonobos live on the other side of a 【L37】______ Both of them are reducing alarmingly in population 【L38】______

填空题Microsoft signed deal with the British Library on the same day as Google and Amazon made their announcements.

填空题You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.The Sweet Scent of SuccessMany innovations end up as lemons — OzKleen turned lemons into a winning formula.A Innovation and entrepreneurship, in the right mix, can bring spectacular results and propel a business ahead of the pack. Across a diverse range of commercial successes, from the Hills Hoist clothes line to the Cochlear ear implant, it is hard to generalize beyond saying the creators tapped into something consumers could not wait to get their hands on. However, most ideas never make it to the market. Some ideas that innovators are spruiking to potential investors include new water-saving shower heads, a keyless locking system, ping-pong balls that keep pollution out of rainwater tanks, making teeth grow from stem cells inserted in the gum, and technology to stop LPG tanks from exploding. Grant Kearney, chief executive of the Innovation Xchange, which connects businesses to innovation networks, says he hears of great business ideas that he knows will never get on the market. "Ideas by themselves are absolutely useless," he says. "An idea only becomes innovation when it is connected to the right resources and capabilities."B One of Australia's latest innovation successes stems from a lemon-scented bathroom cleaner called Shower Power, the formula for which was concocted in a factory in Yatala, Queensland. In 1995, Tom Quinn and John Heron bought a struggling cleaning products business, OzKleen, for 250,000. It was selling 100 different kinds of cleaning products, mainly in bulk. The business was in bad shape, the cleaning formulas were ineffective and environmentally harsh, and there were few regular clients. Now Shower Power is claimed to be the top-selling bathroom cleaning product in the country. In the past 12 months, almost four million bottles of OzKleen's Power products have been sold and the company forecasts 2004 sales of 10 million bottles. The company's sales in 2003 reached $11 million, with 70% of business being exports. In particular, Shower Power is making big inroads on the British market.C OzKleen's turnaround began when Quinn and Heron hired an industrial che-mist to revitalize the product line. Market research showed that people were looking for a better cleaner for the bathroom, universally regarded as the hardest room in the home to clean. The company also wanted to make the[product formulas more environmentally friendly. One of Tom Quinn's sons, Peter, aged 24 at the time, began working with the chemist on the formulas, looking at the potential for citrus-based cleaning products. He detested all the chlorine-based cleaning products that dominated the market. "We didn't want to use chlorine, simple as that," he says. "It offers bad working conditions and there's no money in it." Peter looked at citrus ingredients, such as orange peel, to replace the petroleum by-products in cleaners. He is credited with finding the Shower Power formula. "The recipe is in a vault somewhere and in my head," he says. The company is the sole owner of the intellectual property.D To begin with, Shower Power was sold only in commercial quantities but Tom Quinn decided to sell it in 750ml bottles after the constant "raves" from customers at their retail store at Beenleigh, near Brisbane. Customers were travelling long distances to buy supplies. Others began writing to OzKleen to say how good Shower Power was. "We did a dummy label and went to see Wool-worths," Tom Quinn says. The Woolworths buyer took a bottle home and was I able to remove a stain from her basin that had been impossible to shift. From that point on, she championed the product and OzKleen had its first supermarket order, for a palette of Shower Power worth $3000. "We were over the moon," says OzKleen's financial controller, Belinda McDonnell.E Shower Power was released in Australian supermarkets in 1997 and became the top-selling product in its category within six months. It was all hands on deck at the factory, labeling and bottling Shower Power to keep up with demand. OzKleen ditched all other products and rebuilt the business around Shower Power. This stage, recalls McDonnell, was very tough. "It was hand-to-mouth, cashflow was very difficult," she says. OzKleen had to pay new-line fees to supermarket chains, which also squeezed margins.F OzKleen's next big break came when the daughter of a Coles Myer executive used the product while on holidays in Queensland and convinced her father that Shower Power should be in Coles supermarkets. Despite the product success, Peter Quinn says the company was wary of how long the sales would last and hesitate to spend money on upgrading the manufacturing process. As a result, he remembers long periods of working around the clock to keep up with orders. Small tanks were still being used so batches were small and bottles were labeled and filled manually. The privately owned OzKleen relied on cashflow to expand. "The equipment could not keep up with demand," Peter Quinn says. Eventually a new bottling machine was bought for $50,000 in the hope of streamlining production, but he says: "We got ripped off." Since then he has been developing a new automated bottling machine that can control the amount of foam produced in the liquid, so that bottles can be filled more effectively — "I love coming up with new ideas." The machine is being patented.G Peter Quinn says OzKleen's approach to research and development is open slather. "If I need it, I get it. It is about doing something simple that no one else is doing. Most of these things are jus sitting in front of people ... it's just seeing the opportunities." With a tried and tested product, OzKleen is expanding overseas and developing more Power-brand household products. Tom Quinn, who previously ran a real estate agency, says: "We are competing with the same market all over the world, the(cleaning)products are sold everywhere." Shower Power, known as Bath Power in Britain, was launched four years ago with the help of an export development grand from the Federal Government. "We wanted to do it straight away because we realized we had the same opportunities worldwide." OzKleen is already number three in the British market, and the next stop is France. The Power range includes cleaning products for carpets, kitchens and pre-wash stain removal. The Quinn and Heron families are still involved. OzKleen has been approached with offers to buy the company, but Tom Quinn says he is happy with things as they are. "We're having too much fun."Questions 1-7Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G.Which paragraph contains the following information?Write the correct letter A-G in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

填空题Questions 24-26 Complete the sentences below. Use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the reading passage for each answer. Certain birds have a bigger singing {{U}} {{U}} 11 {{/U}} {{/U}}than they actually need. Female birds might start to choose mates who are able to avoid {{U}} {{U}} 12 {{/U}} {{/U}} It is possible that in future bird species might {{U}} {{U}} 13 {{/U}} {{/U}}in response to differing noise levels.

填空题Questions 19 and 20 Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER for each answer.

填空题Some scientists claim that genetics has led to ______ rather than the actual discovery of new species.

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填空题THELIFECYCLEOFASTARIthasbeenconservativelyestimatedthattherearesome10,000billion,billionstarsintheuniverse.Itisdifficulttoknowtheexactageofastar(astronomershaveidentifiedstarsasyoungas25,000yearsoldandothersarethoughttobeover10billionyearsold),butwhatastronomersdoknowisthattherearemanydifferentkinds.Howeachstarisformed,anditsmass,influencesitstypeandlongevity.Astarisborninanebula,whichisagiantcloudofgasanddust.Thelargertheamountofmatterthatisinthenebula,thegreaterthemassofthestarthatiscreated.Insidethesenebulaearedenseareasofgas,which,duetotheirdensity,haveastrongergravitationalpullthantherestofthenebula.Gradually,gravitydragsthegasinthenebulatogetheranditbeginstospinandbecomeincreasinglyhotter.Oncethetemperaturereaches15,000,000℃,nuclearfusionoccursinthecentreofthecloud,anditbeginstoglowbrightly.Itstabilizesatthistemperature,contractsslightlyandbecomeswhatisknownasamainsequencestar(anexampleofthisisourownSun).Itcanremaininthisstageformillionsorbillionsofyears.Asitglows,hydrogeninthecentre(throughthenuclearfusion)becomeshelium.Eventuallythehydrogensupplyinthecorediminishesandthecoreofthestarbecomesunstable,contractingmore.However,theouterpartsofthestar(whicharestillmainlyhydrogen)expandandcool,andindoingso,thestarstartstoglowred.Itisatthisstagethatthestarbecomesaredgiant.ItisanticipatedthatitwilltaketheSunanother5billionyearstoreachthisstage.BythenitwillhavegrownlargeenoughtoengulfthethreeclosestplanetsMercury,VenusandEarth)andglow2,000timesbrighterthanitcurrentlydoes.Exactlyhowastarwillreactintheredgiantphasedependsonitsmass.Throughouttheredgiantphase,thehydrogenintheouterpartscarriesonburning,andthecentregetshotterandhotter.Onreaching200,000,000℃,theheliumatomsfuseformingcarbonatoms.Theremainderofthehydrogenexplodesandformsaringaroundthecorecalledaplanetarynebula.Withmedium-sizedstars,oncethefinalheliumatomshavefusedintocarbonatoms,thestarstartstodie.Thegravitationalpullleadstothelastofthestar'smattercollapsinginwardsandcompactingtobecomeextremelydense.Astarlikethisiscalledawhitedwarf.Itwillshinewhite-hotuntiltheremainingenergy(thermalenergytrappedinitsinterior)hasbeenexhaustedafterwhichitwillnolongeremitlight.Thiscantakeinexcessofseveralbillionyears.Itisthentermedablackdwarf(acold,darkstar,perhapsrepletewithdiamonds)andremainsinthatstageforever.Whenthelargerredgiants(massivestars)collapse,whichhappensinaninstant,somuchplanetarynebulaiscreatedthatthisgasanddustcanbeusedasbuildingmaterialforplanetsindevelopingsolarsystems.Inaddition,withmassivestars,asthetemperatureincreases,thecarbonatomsgetpulledtogethertoformincreasinglyheavierelementslikeoxygen,nitrogenandfinallyiron.Oncethishappens,fusionceasesandtheironatomsbeginabsorbingenergy.Atsomepointinthefuture,thisenergyisreleasedinahugeexplosioncalledasupernova.Asupernovacanhaveacoretemperatureofupto1,000,000,000℃andtheexplosioncanlightuptheskyforweeks,outshininganentiregalaxy.AstronomersbelievethatEarthismadeupofelementsformedfromtheinsideofstars,inparticularredgiantsthatexplodedassupernovas.Thesemassivestarshaveanaveragelifespanofonemillionyears.Afterbecomingasupernova,theremainingcoreofamassivestarthatis1.5to4timesasmassiveastheSunbecomesaneutronstar.Itstartstospinandoftenemitsradiowaves.Ifthesewavesoccurinpulses,theneutronstarisreferredtoasapulsar.WhenamassivestarhaseightormoretimesthemassoftheSun,itwillremainmassiveafterthesupernova.Ithasnonuclearfusionsupportingthecoreandbecomesengulfedbyitsowngravity.Thisresultsinablackhole,whichsucksinanymatterorenergythatpassesclosetoit.Thegravitationalfieldofablackholeispowerfulenoughtopreventtheescapeoflightandissodensethatitcannotbemeasured.Thephrase'blackhole'originatedfromthephysicistJohnArchibaldWheeler;beforethis,blackholeswereknownas'frozenstars'.Wheelercameupwiththisnametwoyearsbeforetheproofoftheexistenceofthefirstblackhole,X-raybinarystarCygnusX-1,in1971.Astronomersthinkthattheremaybeablackholeatthecentreofeachgalaxy.Thelifecycleofastarisreallythat-thematerialsfromanexplodedstarmixwiththehydrogenoftheuniverse.Thismixtureinturnwillbethestartingpointofthenextstar.TheSunisacaseinpoint,containingthedebrisfromnumerousotherstarsthatexplodedlongbeforetheSunwasborn.Questions1-6DifferentstagesandtypesofstarsarementionedinReadingPassage1.ChooseONEofthetypesorstages(A-H)fromtheboxbelowwhichbestmatchesthedescriptions(Questions1-6).Writeyouranswersinboxes1-6onyourAnswerSheet.NOTE:youmayuseanyanswermorethanonce.A．nebulaB．mainsequencestarC．redgiantD．whitedwarfE．blackdwarfF．supernovaG．neutronstarH．blackhole

填空题Listen to the statement and complete the summary below. Use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

填空题PASSPORT APPLICATION You will need to fill in an application for a passport in the following circumstances: if you are applying for a passport for the first time, if you wish to replace your current passport, if your passport has expired, or if it has been lost or stolen. Your application form must be completed in your own handwriting. As proof of your citizenship and identity, you must enclose either your passport or your birth certificate. All documents must be originals; these will be returned with your passport. The standard time to process an application is up to 10 working days. The processing begins from when we have received the completed application form. Applicants should expect delays if the Passport Office receives a form with missing information. Extra time should be allowed for delivery to and from the Passport Office. Please provide two identical passport photos of yourself. Both photos must be the same in all respects and must be less than 12 months old. Ask someone who can identify you to fill in the "Proof of Identity" information and identify one of your photos. This person will be called your witness and needs to meet the following requirements: a witness must be aged 16 years or over, be contactable by phone during normal office hours and be the holder of a valid passport. A witness should fill in the "Proof of Identity" page in their own handwriting. A witness must also write the full name of the person applying for the passport on the back of one of the photos, sign their own name and date the back of the same photo. Photos with this identifying information written in the applicant"s own handwriting will not be accepted. Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text? In boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

填空题TheFilmCrewAEveryyearsome300,000peoplevisittheworld-famousLascauxcaveinsouthernFrancetoseeitsprehistoricpaintings.Butthosewhoarenotforewarnedareliabletobedisappointed:thecavetheyenterisonlyareplica,created200metersawayfromtheoriginal.Therealcavewasclosedtothepublicin1963,afteritwasfoundthatacombinationofcarbondioxidefromvisitors'breathandmicrobesontherocksurfaceweredevouringtheartwork.Lascauxisnotalone.Oneafteranother,thedoorstosubterraneanculturaltreasuresacrossEuropehavebeenshut.BSuchdrasticmeasureshavelongseemedtobetheonlywaytopreservethesesites,ascleaningthewallswithdisinfectantscanseriouslydamagethedelicatepaintings.ButLascauxandplaceslikeitcouldeventuallybereopenedasaresultofaEuropeanresearchprogramaimedatunderstandingtheecologyofthepaint-eatingmicrobes.Asitturnsout,itismuchmoreeffectivetobesubtle.Whereharshchemicalshavefailed,raysofbluelightaresucceeding.CLascauxclosedwhenpatchesofalgaeandmossbegantospreadacrossthewalls,theresultoflocalclimatechangescausedbytheintenseflowofvisitorsandstrongillumination.Evenbackthen,thecaveattractedmorethan1,000peopleperday,allcurioustoseethe"SistineChapelofitstime"withits17,000-year-oldpaintings.Oncesealed,thecave'sclimateanditsartreturnedtotheiroriginalstate.Todaytheairandpaintingsaremonitoredbycomputer-controlledsensors.DOvertheyears,archaeologistsandmicrobiologistshavediscoveredahugevarietyofmicrobesattackingsubterraneanmonuments.Despitethenutrient-poorconditions,coloniesofalgae,mosses,bacteriaandfungiallfindwaystosurvive.Conservatorshavetriedusingfungicides,bactericidesandquicklimetocontrolthem,butwithlimitedsuccess."Tothrowchemicalscrudelyattheproblemisnotidealbecausetheycancausetheirowndamage,"saysPatriziaAlbertano,abiologistattheUniversityofRome"TorVergata"andcoordinatoroftheEuropeanresearchprogram.EButgentlermicrobicidesthattargetspecifictypesoforganismcanalsobeineffectivebecausetheyjustshiftthebalancetootherspecieswithinthecolony.Unlikethesimplelayerofmouldthatsometimesgrowsinabathroom,thecoloniesthatinvadenewlyopenedsubterraneansitesdevelopintocomplexcommunitiesofinterdependentspecies.Theonlywaytotackletheseeffectivelywithoutharshtreatmentsistoresearchtheexactconstituents."Weneedtounderstandthebiologyofthebiodiversityasawholeandworkouthowbesttocontrolgrowthanddamage,"saysAlbertano."Thisisn'teasyastherangeofmicrobesissogreat."FAlbertano'steam,madeupoftengroupsfromsixEuropeancountries,hasfocusedonthecauseofmostofthedamage,biofilms,complexmatsofinteractingmicroorganisms.ThescientistsselectedthreestudysiteswheretheambientconditionsaretypicalofmanyfamousarchaeologicalremainsinsouthernEurope.TwoareinRome—thecatacombsofDomitillaandSanCallistowiththeirthirdcenturyfrescoes,whichareamongtheearliestknownChristianpaintings.TheotheristheCaveofBatsinZuheros,southernSpain,whichcontainsremarkablegeologicalformationsandPaleolithicrockpaintings.GIntheRomancatacombs,theresearcherswerefacedwithextensivepatchesofgreenonthefrescoes.Theyfoundthatthedominantorganismsinthesebiofilmswerecyanbacteria.Throughtheirabilitytophotosynthesize,thecyanbacteriaweresupportingthegrowthofagreatvarietyofbacteriaandfungi,thusacceleratingthespreadofthebiofilm.Theacidsproducedbytheothermembersofthecolonywerecausing"biocorrosion",anormalphenomenonalongrockycoastlines."Butinthiscase,"saysAlbertano,"itwasdestroyingthefrescoes."HConsideredtobetheancestorsofplants,cyanobacteriadependonsunlight.Yettheycangetbyinplaceswithpoorlight,andarefoundinverydimlylitcaves.Whentheirundergrounddwellingsarefloodedwithartificiallight,thebacteriabegintogrowwildly.Thesameistrueofalgae—whichtheteamfoundintheCaveofBats—andmosses.Suchphotosyntheticspeciesaretheanchorsfortheentirebiofilm,andtheby-productsoftheirmetabolismfeedallmannerofmicrobesinthecolony.ILight,theteamrealized,mightbethebiofilms'Achilles'heel.Tofindout,theresearchersusedaspectroradiometer,whichidentifiesthewavelengthsoflightthatasurfaceabsorbsandreflects.Thecyanobacteriainthecatacombsabsorbedlightfromthefullvisiblespectrumexceptforanarrowbandintheblueregion.Intheory,ifthecatacombswerelitwithonlythatbluelight,themicrobesshouldstopgrowing.JAlbertano'steamtestedtheideainachamberofSanCallistocalledtheCubiculumoftheOcean.Bulbsemittingthecorrectwavelengthwerehardtofind,butthegroupeventuallygotsomefromacompanythatsupplieslightstonightclubs.Underthebluelight,thebiofilm'sgrowthratehasdecreasednoticeably.ButAlbertanosayssheisreservingjudgementonthelong-termeffectivenessofthetechniqueuntilsometimethisyear.KButmonochromaticlightwon'tworkatallsites.Insomecaves,biofilmstrapnutrientscarrieddownfromthesurfacebyseepinggroundwater.Andincavesthathavebothcyanbacterialandmoss-fedbiofilms,bluelightisnotatotalsolution.Insuchplaces,itmaybepossibletotargetchemicalagentsessentialtobiofilmgrowth.Onepossibilityisagroupofcompoundscalledsiderophores,whichareusedbybacteriatoabsorbiron,anutrienttheyneedtoproduceessentialenzymes.Theresearchersreasonthatthejudiciousapplicationofsiderophoresproducedinthelabcouldsoakupironbeforethebacteriacanmakeuseofit,andsoinhibittheirgrowth.SuchanapproachisbeingtestedbyVTTBiotechnologynearHelsinki,Finland,asawaytoreducesalmonellainfectionsinchickenhouses.LSuchchemicalmethodsarestillunderdevelopmentandhaveyettobetriedinthecaves.Butiftheywork,theycouldbecombinedwithpurelighttoallowarchaeologicalsitescurrentlysealedoffforprotectiontoreopentothepublic."Thesebiocleaningproceduresmaydevelopintoavaluablealternativetobactericidesandfungicides,andwouldbelessdangerousforthehealthofresearchersandvisitors,"Albertanosays.Questions23-27Completethesummarybelow.ChooseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.Thefamousprehistoricsite,Lascaux,madevisitorsdespairedwhoonlysawits(23)insteadoftherealone.Thisisbecausedestructionfrom(24)andmicrobesoutside.Itwouldbeadisasterifpeopleonlyused(25)tocleanthewallsandevenworse,theancientcavehasbeensufferedfromactivitiesof(26)whichwasfoundbyEuropeanresearchers.So,scientistsinstalled(27)tocheckqualityofbothairandpaintings.

填空题China has brought far less ______ into services, slowing development of that sector.

填空题Gladiators: Heroes of the Roman Amphitheatre Section A A Today, the idea of gladiators fighting to the death, and of an amphitheatre where this could take place watched by an enthusiastic audience, epitomizes the depths to which the Roman Empire was capable of sinking. Yet, to the Romans themselves, the institution of the arena was one of the defining features of their civilization. Hardly any contemporary voices questioned the morality of staging gladiatorial combat. And the gladiators' own epitaphs mention their profession without shame, apology, or resentment. So, who were these gladiators, and what was their role in Roman society? Section B B The Romans believed that the first gladiators were slaves who were made to fight to the death at the funeral of a distinguished aristocrat, Junius Brutus Pera, in 264 BC. This spectacle was arranged by the heirs of the deceased to honour his memory. Gradually gladiatorial spectacle became separated from the funerals, and was staged by the wealthy as a means of displaying their power and influence within the local community. The number of gladiators to be displayed was a key attraction: the larger the figure, the more generous the sponsor was perceived to be, and the more glamorous the spectacle. C Most gladiators were slaves. They were subjected to a rigorous training, fed on a high-energy diet, and given expert medical attention. Hence they were an expensive investment, not to be despatched lightly. When a gladiator died in combat, as compensation, the trainer might claim up to a hundred times the cost of the gladiator who survived. Hence it was very much more costly for sponsors to supply the bloodshed that audiences often demanded, although if they did allow a gladiator to be slain it was seen as an indication of their generosity. Mosaics from around the Roman empire depict the critical moment when the victor is standing over his floored opponent, poised to inflict the fatal blow. Section C D The rules were probably specific to different styles of combat. Gladiators were individually armed, but paired against each other in various combinations, each combination imposing its own fighting style. Some of the most popular pairings pitted contrasting advantages and disadvantages against one another. E Combat between the murmillo ("fish-fighter", so called from the logo on his helmet) and the thraex was a standard favourite. The murmillo had a large, oblong shield that covered his body from shoulder to calf; it afforded stout protection, but was very unwieldy. The thraex, on the other hand, carried a small square shield that covered only his torso, but wore leg-protectors that came well above the knee. So the murmillo and his opponent were comparably protected, but the size and weight of their shields would have called for different fighting techniques, contributing to the interest and suspense of the engagement. The most vulnerable of all gladiators was the net-fighter (retiarius), who had only a shoulder-guard on his left arm to protect him. He customarily fought the heavily-armed secutor who, although virtually impregnable, lumbered under the weight of his armour. Being relatively unencumbered, the net fighter could move nimbly to inflict a blow with his right hand using his trident at relatively long range, throw his net over his opponent, and then close in with his short dagger for the fight. F Not that all gladiators were right-handed. A disconcerting advantage accrued to the left-handed; they were trained to fight right-handers, but their opponents, unaccustomed to being approached from this angle, could be thrown off-balance by a left-handed attack. Left-handedness is hence a quality advertised in graffiti and epitaphs alike. Section D G The occupants of the gladiatorial barracks changed frequently, as troupes toured the local circuit. Some gladiators survived to reach retirement; new recruits were enlisted, many of them probably unable to understand Latin. In the larger barracks, members of the same fighting style lived with their own dedicated trainer, and they often bonded together in formal associations. H Yet gladiators must frequently have met their close colleagues in mortal combat. Professionalism and the survival instinct would have demanded a merciless display of expertise, inculcated by the gladiator's training. Within a training school there was a competitive hierarchy of grades (paloi) through which individuals were promoted. The larger barracks had their own training arena, with accommodation for spectators, so that combatants became accustomed to practising before an audience of their fellows. The system meant that combat and heroic prowess were brought right into the urban centres of the Roman empire, whereas real warfare was going on unimaginably far away, on the borders of barbarism. Section E I There were some dissenting voices. The philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius found gladiatorial combat "boring". Both pagan philosophers and Christian fathers scorned the arena, but they objected most vociferously not to the brutality of the displays, but to the loss of self-control that the hype generated among the spectators. J Despite the dissent, gladiatorial displays were red-letter days in communities throughout the empire. The whole spectrum of local society was represented, seated strictly according to status. The combatants paraded beforehand, fully armed. Exotic animals might be displayed and hunted in the early part of the programme, and prisoners might be executed by exposure to the beasts. As the combat between each pair of gladiators reached its climax, the band played to a frenzied crescendo. K Above all, gladiatorial combat was a display of nerve and skill. The gladiator, worthless in terms of civic status, was paradoxically capable of heroism. Under the Roman empire, his job was one of the threads that bound together the entire social and economic fabric of the Roman world. Not even Spartacus, most famous of all gladiators, has left his own account of himself. But shreds of evidence, in words and pictures, remain-to be pieced together as testimony of an institution that characterized an entire civilization for nearly 700 years. Questions 14-17 Reading Passage 2 has five sections A-E. Choose the most suitable headings for sections B-E from the list of headings given. Section A has been done for you as an example. Write the correct number, i-ix, in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet. List of Headings i Fighting left-handed ii Religious support for gladiatorial combat iii Behind the scenes: the professional structure iv Different ways of fighting v Spartacus in Ancient Rome vi Criticism and popularity vii About the gladiators themselves viii Attitudes to gladiatorial combat then and now ix How gladiators were trained

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