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ThefutureofworkAccordingtoaleadingbusinessconsultancy,3-14%oftheglobalworkforcewillneedtoswitchtoadifferentoccupationwithinthenext10-15years,andallworkerswillneedtoadaptastheiroccupationsevolvealongsideincreasinglycapablemachines.Automation-orembodiedartificialintelligence(AI)-isoneaspectofthedisruptiveeffectsoftechnologyonthelabourmarket.DisembodiedAI,likethealgorithmsrunninginoursmartphones,isanother.DrStellaPachidifromCambridgeJudgeBusinessSchoolbelievesthatsomeofthemostfundamentalchangesarehappeningasaresultofthealgorithmicationofjobsthataredependentondataratherthanonproduction-theso-calledknowledgeeconomy.Algorithmsarecapableoflearningfromdatatoundertaketasksthatpreviouslyneededhumanjudgement,suchasreadinglegalcontracts,analysingmedicalscansandgatheringmarketintelligence.Inmanycases,theycanoutperformhumans,saysPachidi,Organisationsareattractedtousingalgorithmsbecausetheywanttomakechoicesbasedonwhattheyconsiderisperfectinformation,aswellastoreducecostsandenhanceproductivity.Buttheseenhancementsarenotwithoutconsequences,saysPachidi.IfroutinecognitivetasksaretakenoverbyAI,howdoprofessionsdeveloptheirfutureexperts?sheasks.Onewayoflearningaboutajobislegitimateperipheralparticipation-anovicestandsnexttoexpertsandlearnsbyobservation.Ifthisisnthappening,thenyouneedtofindnewwaystolearn.Anotherissueistheextenttowhichthetechnologyinfluencesorevencontrolstheworkforce.Forovertwoyears,Pachidimonitoredatelecommunicationscompany.Thewaytelecomssalespeopleworkisthroughpersonalandfrequentcontactwithclients,usingthebenefitofexperiencetoassessasituationandreachadecision.However,thecompanyhadstartedusinga[n]...algorithmthatdefinedwhenaccountmanagersshouldcontactcertaincustomersaboutwhichkindsofcampaignsandwhattoofferthem.Thealgorithm-usuallybuiltbyexternaldesigners-oftenbecomesthekeeperofknowledge,sheexplains.Incaseslikethis,Pachidibelieves,ashort-sightedviewbeginstocreepintoworkingpracticeswherebyworkerslearnthroughthealgorithmseyesandbecomedependentonitsinstructions.Alternativeexplorations-whereexperimentationandhumaninstinctleadtoprogressandnewideas-areeffectivelydiscouraged.Pachidiandcolleaguesevenobservedpeopledevelopingstrategiestomakethealgorithmworktotheirownadvantage.Weareseeingcaseswhereworkersfeedthealgorithmwithfalsedatatoreachtheirtargets,shereports.Itsscenarioslikethesethatmanyresearchersareworkingtoavoid.TheirobjectiveistomakeAItechnologiesmoretrustworthyandtransparent,sothatorganisationsandindividualsunderstandhowAIdecisionsaremade.Inthemeantime,saysPachidi,Weneedtomakesurewefullyunderstandthedilemmasthatthisnewworldraisesregardingexpertise,occupationalboundariesandcontrol.EconomistProfessorHamishLowbelievesthatthefutureofworkwillinvolvemajortransitionsacrossthewholelifecourseforeveryone:Thetraditionaltrajectoryoffull-timeeducationfollowedbyfull-timeworkfollowedbyapensionedretirementisathingofthepast,saysLow.Instead,heenvisagesamultistageemploymentlife:onewhereretraininghappensacrossthelifecourse,andwheremultiplejobsandnojobhappenbychoiceatdifferentstages.Onthesubjectofjoblosses,Lowbelievesthepredictionsarefoundedonafallacy:Itassumesthatthenumberofjobsisfixed.Ifin30years,halfof100jobsarebeingcarriedoutbyrobots,thatdoesntmeanweareleftwithjust50jobsforhumans.Thenumberofjobswillincrease:wewouldexpecttheretobe150jobs.DrEwanMcGaughey,atCambridgesCentreforBusinessResearchandKingsCollegeLondon,agreesthatapocalypticviewsaboutthefutureofworkaremisguided.Itsthelawsthatrestrictthesupplyofcapitaltothejobmarket,nottheadventofnewtechnologiesthatcausesunemployment.Hisrecentlypublishedresearchanswersthequestionofwhetherautomation,AIandroboticswillmeanajoblessfuturebylookingatthecausesofunemployment.Historyisclearthatchangecanmeanredundancies.Butsocialpoliciescantacklethisthroughretrainingandredeployment.Headds:IfthereisgoingtobechangetojobsasaresultofAIandroboticsthenIdliketoseegovernmentsseizingtheopportunitytoimprovepolicytoenforcegoodjobsecurity.Wecanreprogrammethelawtoprepareforafairerfutureofworkandleisure.McGaugheysfindingsareacalltoarmstoleadersoforganisations,governmentsandbankstopre-emptthecomingchangeswithboldnewpoliciesthatguaranteefullemployment,fairincomesandathrivingeconomicdemocracy.Thepromisesofthesenewtechnologiesareastounding.Theydeliverhumankindthecapacitytoliveinawaythatnobodycouldhaveonceimagined,headds.Justastheindustrialrevolutionbroughtpeoplepastsubsistenceagriculture,andthecorporaterevolutionenabledmassproduction,athirdrevolutionhasbeenpronounced.Butitwillnotonlybeoneoftechnology.Thenextrevolutionwillbesocial.Question35-40Lookatthefollowingstatements(Questions35-40)andthelistofpeoplebelow.Matcheachstatementwiththecorrectperson,A,BorC.Writethecorrectletter,A,BorC,inboxes35-40onyouranswersheet.NBYoumayuseanylettermorethanonce.
【参考范例九】
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TheRollfilmRevolution Theintroductionofthedryplateprocessbroughtwithitmanyadvantages.Notonlywasitmuchmoreconvenient,sothatthephotographernolongerneededtopreparehismaterialinadvance,butitsmuchgreatersensitivitymadepossibleanewgenerationofcameras.Instantaneousexposureshadbeenpossiblebefore,butonlywithsomedifficultyandwithspecialequipmentandconditions.Now,exposuresshortenoughtopermitthecameratobeheldinthehandwereeasilyachieved.Aswellasfittingshuttersandviewfinderstotheirconventionalstandcameras,manufacturersbegantoconstructsmallercamerasintendedspecificallyforhanduse. OneofthefirstdesignstobepublishedwasThomasBolas’s“Detective”cameraof1881.Externallyaplainbox,quiteunlikethefoldingbellowscameratypicaloftheperiod,itcouldbeusedunobtrusively.Thenamecaughton,andforthenextdecadeorsoalmostallhandcameraswerecalled“Detectives”.Manyofthenewdesignsinthe1880swereformagazinecameras,inwhichanumberofdryplatescouldbepre-loadedandchangedoneafteranotherfollowingexposure.Althoughmuchmoreconvenientthanstandcameras,stillusedbymostseriousworkers,magazineplatecameraswereheavy,andrequiredaccesstoadarkroomforloadingandprocessingtheplates.ThiswasallchangedbyayoungAmericanbankclerkturnedphotographicmanufacturer,GeorgeEastman,fromRochester,NewYork. Eastmanhadbeguntomanufacturegelatinedryplatesin1880,beingoneofthefirsttodosoinAmerica.Hesoonlookedforwaysofsimplifyingphotography,believingthatmanypeoplewereputoffbythecomplicationandmessiness.Hisfirststepwastodevelop,withthecameramanufacturerWilliamH.Walker,aholderforalongrollofpapernegative“film”.Thiscouldbefittedtoastandardplatecameraanduptoforty-eightexposuresmadebeforereloading.Thecombinedweightofthepaperrollandtheholderwasfarlessthanthesamenumberofglassplatesintheirlight-tightwoodenholders.Althoughroll-holdershadbeenmadeasearlyasthe1850s,nonehadbeenverysuccessfulbecauseofthelimitationsofthephotographicmaterialsthenavailable.Eastman’srollablepaperfilmwassensitiveandgavenegativesofgoodquality;theEastman-Walkerroll-holderwasagreatSuccess. Thenextstepwastocombinetheroll-holderwithasmallhandcamera:Eastman’sfirstdesignwaspatentedwithanemployerF.M.Cossitt,in1886.Itwasnotasuccess.OnlyfiftyEastmandetectivecamerasweremade,andtheyweresoldasalottoadealerin1887;thecostwastoohighandthedesigntoocomplicated.Eastmansetaboutdevelopinganewmodel,whichwaslaunchedinJune1888.Itwasasmallbox,containingarollofpaper-basedstrippingfilmsufficientfor100circularexposures6cmindiameter.Itsoperationwassimple:settheshutterbypullingawirestring;aimthecamerausingtheVlineimpressioninthecameratop;pressthereleasebuttontoactivatetheexposure;andturnaspecialkeytowindonthefilm.Ahundredexposureshadtobemade,soitwasimportanttorecordeachpictureinthememorandumbookprovided,sincetherewasnoexposurecounter.Eastmangavehiscameratheinventedname“Kodak”,whichwaseasilypronounceableinmostlanguages,andhadtwoKswhichEastmanfeltwasafirm,uncompromisingkindofletter. TheimportanceofEastman’snewroll-filmcamerawasnotthatitwasthefirst.Therehadbeenseveralearliercameras,notablytheStirn“America”,firstdemonstratedinthespringof1887andonsalefromearly1888.Thisalsousedarollofnegativepaper,andhadsuchrefinementsasareflectingviewfinderandaningeniousexposuremarker.TherealsignificanceofthefirstKodakcamerawasthatitwasbackedupbyadevelopingandprintingservice.Hitherto,virtuallyallphotographersdevelopedandprintedtheirownpictures.Thisrequiredthefacilitiesofadarkroomandthetimeandinclinationtohandlethenecessarychemicals,maketheprintsandsoon.Eastmanrecognizedthatnoteveryonehadtheresourcesorthedesiretodothese.WhenacustomerhadmadeahundredexposuresintheKodakcamera,hesentittoEastman’sfactoryinRochesterwherethefilmwasunloaded,processedandprinted,thecamerareloadedandreturnedtotheowner.“YouPresstheButton,WeDotheRest”ranEastman’sclassicmarketingslogan;photographyhadbeenbroughttoeveryone.Everyone,thatis,whocouldafford$25orfiveguineasforthecameraand$10ortwoguineasforthedevelopingandprinting.Aguinea($5)wasaweek’swagesformanyatthetime,sothissimplecameracosttheequivalentofhundredsofdollarstoday. In1889animprovedmodelwithanewshutterdesignwasintroduced,anditwascalledtheNo.2Kodakcamera.Thepaper-basedstrippingfilmwascomplicatedtomanipulate,sincetheprocessednegativeimagehadtobestrippedfromthepaperbaseforprinting.Attheendof1889Eastmanlaunchedanewrollfilmonacelluloidbase.Clear,tough,transparentandflexible,thenewfilmnotonlymadetheroll-filmcamerafullypractical,butprovidedtherawmaterialfortheintroductionofcinematographyafewyearslater.Other,largermodelswereintroduced,includingseveralfoldingversions,oneofwhichtookpictures21.6cm×16.5cminsize.OthermanufacturersinAmericaandEuropeintroducedcamerastotaketheKodakroll-films,andotherfirmsbegantoofferdevelopingandprintingservicesforthebenefitofthenewbreedofphotographers.BySeptember1889,over5,000KodakcamerashadbeensoldintheUSA,andthecompanywasdailyprinting6,000-7,000negatives.Holidaysandspecialeventscreatedenormoussurgesindemandforprocessing:900KodakusersreturnedtheircamerasforprocessingandreloadingintheweekaftertheNewYorkcentennialcelebration. Completethediagrambelow. ChooseNOMORETHANTHREEWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer. Writeyouranswersinboxes1-5onyouranswersheet.
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TheStepPyramidofDjoserAThepyramidsarethemostfamousmonumentsofancientEgyptandstillholdenormousinterestforpeopleinthepresentday.Thesegrand,impressivetributestothememoryoftheEgyptiankingshavebecomelinkedwiththecountryeventhoughothercultures,suchastheChineseandMayan,alsobuiltpyramids.Theevolutionofthepyramidformhasbeenwrittenandarguedaboutforcenturies.However,thereisnoquestionthat,asfarasEgyptisconcerned,itbeganwithonemonumenttoonekingdesignedbyonebrilliantarchitect:theStepPyramidofDjoseratSaqqara.BDjoserwasthefirstkingoftheThirdDynastyofEgyptandthefirsttobuildinstone.PriortoDjosersreign,tombswererectangularmonumentsmadeofdriedclaybrick,whichcoveredundergroundpassageswherethedeceasedpersonwasburied.Forreasonswhichremainunclear,Djosersmainofficial,whosenamewasImhotep,conceivedofbuildingataller,moreimpressivetombforhiskingbystackingstoneslabsontopofoneanother,progressivelymakingthemsmaller,toformtheshapenowknownastheStepPyramid.Djoseristhoughttohavereignedfor19years,butsomehistoriansandscholarsattributeamuchlongertimeforhisrule,owingtothenumberandsizeofthemonumentshebuilt.CTheStepPyramidhasbeenthoroughlyexaminedandinvestigatedoverthelastcentury,anditisnowknownthatthebuildingprocesswentthroughmanydifferentstages.HistorianMarcVandeMieroopcommentsonthis,writingMuchexperimentationwasinvolved,whichisespeciallyclearintheconstructionofthepyramidinthecenterofthecomplex.Ithadseveralplans...beforeitbecamethefirstStepPyramidinhistory,pilingsixlevelsontopofoneanother...Theweightoftheenormousmasswasachallengeforthebuilders,whoplacedthestonesataninwardinclineinordertopreventthemonumentbreakingup.DWhenfinallycompleted,theStepPyramidrose62metershighandwasthetalleststructureofitstime.ThecomplexinwhichitwasbuiltwasthesizeofacityinancientEgyptandincludedatemple,courtyards,shrines,andlivingquartersforthepriests.Itcoveredaregionof16hectaresandwassurroundedbyawall10.5metershigh.Thewallhad13falsedoorscutintoitwithonlyonetrueentrancecutintothesouth-eastcorner;theentirewallwasthenringedbyatrench750meterslongand40meterswide.Thefalsedoorsandthetrenchwereincorporatedintothecomplextodiscourageunwantedvisitors.Ifsomeonewishedtoenter,heorshewouldhaveneededtoknowinadvancehowtofindthelocationofthetrueopeninginthewall.DjoserwassoproudofhisaccomplishmentthathebrokethetraditionofhavingonlyhisownnameonthemonumentandhadImhotepsnamecarvedonitaswell.ETheburialchamberofthetomb,wherethekingsbodywaslaidtorest,wasdugbeneaththebaseofthepyramid,surroundedbyavastmazeoflongtunnelsthathadroomsoffthemtodiscouragerobbers.Oneofthemostmysteriousdiscoveriesfoundinsidethepyramidwasalargenumberofstonevessels.Over40,000ofthesevessels,ofvariousformsandshapes,werediscoveredinstoreroomsoffthepyramidsundergroundpassages.TheyareinscribedwiththenamesofrulersfromtheFirstandSecondDynastiesofEgyptandmadefromdifferentkindsofstone.ThereisnoagreementamongscholarsandarchaeologistsonwhythevesselswereplacedinthetombofDjoserorwhattheyweresupposedtorepresent.ThearchaeologistJean-PhilippeLauer,whoexcavatedmostofthepyramidandcomplex,believestheywereoriginallystoredandthengivenaproperburialbyDjoserinhispyramidtohonorhispredecessors.Thereareotherhistorians,however,whoclaimthevesselsweredumpedintotheshaftsasyetanotherattempttopreventgraverobbersfromgettingtothekingsburialchamber.FUnfortunately,alloftheprecautionsandintricatedesignoftheundergroundnetworkdidnotpreventancientrobbersfromfindingawayin.Djosersgravegoods,andevenhisbody,werestolenatsomepointinthepastandallarchaeologistsfoundwereasmallnumberofhisvaluablesoverlookedbythethieves.Therewasenoughleftthroughoutthepyramidanditscomplex,however,toastonishandamazethearchaeologistswhoexcavatedit.GEgyptologistMiroslavVernerwrites,FewmonumentsholdaplaceinhumanhistoryassignificantasthatoftheStepPyramidinSaqqara...ItcanbesaidwithoutexaggerationthatthispyramidcomplexconstitutesamilestoneintheevolutionofmonumentalstonearchitectureinEgyptandintheworldasawhole.TheStepPyramidwasarevolutionaryadvanceinarchitectureandbecamethearchetypewhichalltheothergreatpyramidbuildersofEgyptwouldfollow.Question21-24Completethenotesbelow.ChooseONEWORDONLYfromthepassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes21-24onyouranswersheet.TheStepPyramidofDjoserThecomplexthatincludestheStepPyramidanditssurroundingsisconsideredtobeasbigasanEgyptian21 ofthepast.Theareaoutsidethepyramidincludedaccommodationthatwasoccupiedby22,alongwithmanyotherbuildingsandfeatures.Awallranaroundtheoutsideofthecomplexandanumberoffalseentranceswerebuiltintothis.Inaddition,along23 encircledthewall.Asaresult,anyvisitorswhohadnotbeeninvitedwerecleverlypreventedfromenteringthepyramidgroundsunlesstheyknewthe24 oftherealentrance.
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Question1-10Completetheformbelow.WriteONEWORDAND/ORANUMBERforeachanswer.CustomerSatisfactionSurveyCustomerdetailsName:SophieBirdOccupation: 1Reasonfortraveltoday: 2JourneyinformationNameofstationreturningto: 3Typeofticketpurchased:standard 4 ticketCostofticket: ￡5Whenticketwaspurchased:yesterdayWhereticketwasbought: 6SatisfactionwithjourneyMostsatisfiedwith:thewifiLeastsatisfiedwith:the 7 thismorningSatisfactionwithstationfacilitiesMostsatisfiedwith:howmuch 8 wasprovidedLeastsatisfiedwith:lackofseats,particularlyonthe 9Neithersatisfiednordissatisfiedwith:the 10 available
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Filmsandcinema电影/电影院
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HowtomakewisedecisionsAcrosscultures,wisdomhasbeenconsideredoneofthemostreveredhumanqualities.Althoughthetrulywisemayseemfewandfarbetween,empiricalresearchexaminingwisdomsuggeststhatitisntanexceptionaltraitpossessedbyasmallhandfulofbeardedphilosophersafterall-infact,thelateststudiessuggestthatmostofushavetheabilitytomakewisedecisions,giventherightcontext.Itappearsthatexperiential,situational,andculturalfactorsareevenmorepowerfulinshapingwisdomthanpreviouslyimagined,saysAssociateProfessorIgorGrossmannoftheUniversityofWaterlooinOntario,Canada.Recentempiricalfindingsfromcognitive,developmental,social,andpersonalitypsychologycumulativelysuggestthatpeoplesabilitytoreasonwiselyvariesdramaticallyacrossexperientialandsituationalcontexts.Understandingtheroleofsuchcontextualfactorsoffersuniqueinsightsintounderstandingwisdomindailylife,aswellashowitcanbeenhancedandtaught.Itseemsthatitsnotsomuchthatsomepeoplesimplypossesswisdomandotherslackit,butthatourabilitytoreasonwiselydependsonavarietyofexternalfactors.Itisimpossibletocharacterizethoughtprocessesattributedtowisdomwithoutconsideringtheroleofcontextualfactors,explainsGrossmann.Inotherwords,wisdomisnotsolelyan“innerquality”butratherunfoldsasafunctionofsituationspeoplehappentobein.Somesituationsaremorelikelytopromotewisdomthanothers.Comingupwithadefinitionofwisdomischallenging,butGrossmannandhiscolleagueshaveidentifiedfourkeycharacteristicsaspartofaframeworkofwisereasoning.Oneisintellectualhumilityorrecognitionofthelimitsofourownknowledge,andanotherisappreciationofperspectiveswiderthantheissueathand.Sensitivitytothepossibilityofchangeinsocialrelationsisalsokey,alongwithcompromiseorintegrationofdifferentattitudesandbeliefs.Grossmannandhiscolleagueshavealsofoundthatoneofthemostreliablewaystosupportwisdominourownday-to-daydecisionsistolookatscenariosfromathird-partyperspective,asthoughgivingadvicetoafriend.Researchsuggeststhatwhenadoptingafirst-personviewpointwefocusonthefocalfeaturesoftheenvironmentandwhenweadoptathird-person,observerviewpointwereasonmorebroadlyandfocusmoreoninterpersonalandmoralidealssuchasjusticeandimpartiality.Lookingatproblemsfromthismoreexpansiveviewpointappearstofostercognitiveprocessesrelatedtowisedecisions.Whatarewetodo,then,whenconfrontedwithsituationslikeadisagreementwithaspouseornegotiatingacontractatwork,thatrequireustotakeapersonalstake?Grossmannarguesthatevenwhenwearentabletochangethesituation,wecanstillevaluatetheseexperiencesfromdifferentperspectives.Forexample,inoneexperimentthattookplaceduringthepeakofarecenteconomicrecession,graduatingcollegeseniorswereaskedtoreflectontheirjobprospects.Thestudentswereinstructedtoimaginetheircareereitherasifyouwereadistantobserverorbeforeyourowneyesasifyouwererightthere.Participantsinthegroupassignedtothedistantobserverroledisplayedmorewisdom-relatedreasoning(intellectualhumilityandrecognitionofchange)thandidparticipantsinthecontrolgroup.Inanotherstudy,couplesinlong-termromanticrelationshipswereinstructedtovisualizeanunresolvedrelationshipconflicteitherthroughtheeyesofanoutsiderorfromtheirownperspective.Participantsthendiscussedtheincidentwiththeirpartnerfor10minutes,afterwhichtheywrotedowntheirthoughtsaboutit.Couplesintheotherseyesconditionweresignificantlymorelikelytorelyonwisereasoning-recognizingothersperspectivesandsearchingforacompromise-comparedtothecouplesintheegocentriccondition.Ego-decenteringpromotesgreaterfocusonothersandenablesabiggerpicture,conceptualviewoftheexperience,affordingrecognitionofintellectualhumilityandchange,saysGrossmann.Wemightassociatewisdomwithintelligenceorparticularpersonalitytraits,butresearchshowsonlyasmallpositiverelationshipbetweenwisethinkingandcrystallizedintelligenceandthepersonalitytraitsofopennessandagreeableness.Itisremarkablehowmuchpeoplecanvaryintheirwisdomfromonesituationtothenext,andhowmuchstrongersuchcontextualeffectsareforunderstandingtherelationshipbetweenwisejudgmentanditssocialandaffectiveoutcomesascomparedtothegeneralized“traits”,Grossmannexplains.Thatis,knowinghowwiselyapersonbehavesinagivensituationismoreinformativeforunderstandingtheiremotionsorlikelihoodtoforgive[or]retaliateascomparedtoknowingwhetherthepersonmaybewiseingeneral.Question31-35Completethesummaryusingthelistofwords,A-J,below.Writethecorrectletter,A-J,inboxes31-35onyouranswersheet.ThecharacteristicsofwisereasoningIgorGrossmannandcolleagueshaveestablishedfourcharacteristicswhichenableustomakewisedecisions.Itisimportanttohaveacertaindegreeof 31 regardingtheextentofourknowledge,andtotakeintoaccount 32 whichmaynotbethesameasourown.Weshouldalsobeabletotakeabroad 33 ofanysituation.Anotherkeycharacteristicisbeingawareofthelikelihoodofalterationsinthewaythatpeoplerelatetoeachother.Grossmannalsobelievesthatitisbettertoregardscenarioswith 34 .Byavoidingthefirst-personperspective,wefocusmoreon 35 andonothermoralideals,whichinturnleadstowiserdecision-making.
RomantunnelsTheRomans,whooncecontrolledareasofEurope,NorthAfricaandAsiaMinor,adoptedtheconstructiontechniquesofothercivilizationstobuildtunnelsintheirterritoriesThePersians,wholivedinpresent-dayIran,wereoneofthefirstcivilizationstobuildtunnelsthatprovidedareliablesupplyofwatertohumansettlementsindryareas.IntheearlyfirstmillenniumBCE,theyintroducedtheqanatmethodoftunnelconstruction,whichconsistedofplacingpostsoverahillinastraightline,toensurethatthetunnelkepttoitsroute,andthendiggingverticalshaftsdownintothegroundatregularintervals.Underground,workersremovedtheearthfrombetweentheendsoftheshafts,creatingatunnel.Theexcavatedsoilwastakenuptothesurfaceusingtheshafts,whichalsoprovidedventilationduringthework.Oncethetunnelwascompleted,itallowedwatertoflowfromthetopofahillsidedowntowardsacanal,whichsuppliedwaterforhumanuse.Remarkably,someqanatsbuiltbythePersians2,700yearsagoarestillinusetoday.TheylaterpassedontheirknowledgetotheRomans,whoalsousedtheqanatmethodtoconstructwater-supplytunnelsforagriculture.Romanqanattunnelswereconstructedwithverticalshaftsdugatintervalsofbetween30and60meters.Theshaftswereequippedwithhandholdsandfootholdstohelpthoseclimbinginandoutofthemandwerecoveredwithawoodenorstonelid.Toensurethattheshaftswerevertical,Romanshungaplumblinefromarodplacedacrossthetopofeachshaftandmadesurethattheweightattheendofithunginthecenteroftheshaft.Plumblineswerealsousedtomeasurethedepthoftheshaftandtodeterminetheslopeofthetunnel.The5.6-kilometer-longClaudiustunnel,builtin41CEtodraintheFucineLakeincentralItaly,hadshaftsthatwereupto122metersdeep,took11yearstobuildandinvolvedapproximately30,000workers.Bythe6thcenturyBCE,asecondmethodoftunnelconstructionappearedcalledthecounter-excavationmethod,inwhichthetunnelwasconstructedfrombothends.Itwasusedtocutthroughhighmountainswhentheqanatmethodwasnotapracticalalternative.Thismethodrequiredgreaterplanningandadvancedknowledgeofsurveying,mathematicsandgeometryasbothendsofatunnelhadtomeetcorrectlyatthecenterofthemountain.Adjustmentstothedirectionofthetunnelalsohadtobemadewheneverbuildersencounteredgeologicalproblemsorwhenitdeviatedfromitssetpath.Theyconstantlycheckedthetunnelsadvancingdirection,forexample,bylookingbackatthelightthatpenetratedthroughthetunnelmouth,andmadecorrectionswhenevernecessary.Largedeviationscouldhappen,andtheycouldresultinoneendofthetunnelnotbeingusable.Aninscriptionwrittenonthesideofa428-metertunnel,builtbytheRomansaspartoftheSaldaeaqueductsysteminmodern-dayAlgeria,describeshowthetwoteamsofbuildersmissedeachotherinthemountainandhowthelaterconstructionofalaterallinkbetweenbothcorridorscorrectedtheinitialerror.TheRomansdugtunnelsfortheirroadsusingthecounter-excavationmethod,whenevertheyencounteredobstaclessuchashillsormountainsthatweretoohighforroadstopassover.Anexampleisthe37-meter-long,6-meter-high,FurloPassTunnelbuiltinItalyin69-79CE.Remarkably,amodernroadstillusesthistunneltoday.Tunnelswerealsobuiltformineralextraction.Minerswouldlocateamineralveinandthenpursueitwithshaftsandtunnelsunderground.TracesofsuchtunnelsusedtominegoldcanstillbefoundattheDolaucothiminesinWales.Whenthesolepurposeofatunnelwasmineralextraction,constructionrequiredlessplanning,asthetunnelroutewasdeterminedbythemineralvein.Romantunnelprojectswerecarefullyplannedandcarriedout.Thelengthoftimeittooktoconstructatunneldependedonthemethodbeingusedandthetypeofrockbeingexcavated.Theqanatconstructionmethodwasusuallyfasterthanthecounter-excavationmethodasitwasmorestraightforward.Thiswasbecausethemountaincouldbeexcavatednotonlyfromthetunnelmouthsbutalsofromshafts.Thetypeofrockcouldalsoinfluenceconstructiontimes.Whentherockwashard,theRomansemployedatechniquecalledfirequenchingwhichconsistedofheatingtherockwithfire,andthensuddenlycoolingitwithcoldwatersothatitwouldcrack.Progressthroughhardrockcouldbeveryslow,anditwasnotuncommonfortunnelstotakeyears,ifnotdecades,tobebuilt.ConstructionmarksleftonaRomantunnelinBolognashowthattherateofadvancethroughsolidrockwas30centimetersperday.Incontrast,therateofadvanceoftheClaudiustunnelcanbecalculatedat1.4metersperday.Mosttunnelshadinscriptionsshowingthenamesofpatronswhoorderedconstructionandsometimesthenameofthearchitect.Forexample,the1.4-kilometerÇevliktunnelinTurkey,builttodivertthefloodwaterthreateningtheharboroftheancientcityofSeleuceiaPieria,hadinscriptionsontheentrance,stillvisibletoday,thatalsoindicatethatthetunnelwasstartedin69CEandwascompletedin81CE.Question11-13Answerthequestionsbelow.ChooseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes11-13onyouranswersheet.
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【参考范例四】
1
TheWhiteHorseofUffingtonThecuttingofhugefiguresorgeoglyphsintotheearthofEnglishhillsideshastakenplaceformorethan3,000years.Thereare56hillfiguresscatteredaroundEngland,withthevastmajorityonthechalkdownlandsofthecountryssoutherncounties.Thefiguresincludegiants,horses,crossesandregimentalbadges.Althoughthemajorityofthesegeoglyphsdatewithinthelast300yearsorso,thereareoneortwothataremucholder.Themostfamousofthesefiguresisperhapsalsothemostmysterious-theUffingtonWhiteHorseinOxfordshire.TheWhiteHorsehasrecentlybeenre-datedandshowntobeevenolderthanitspreviouslyassignedancientpre-RomanIronAge*date.MorecontroversialisthedateoftheenigmaticLongManofWilmingtoninSussex.Whilemanyhistoriansareconvincedthefigureisprehistoric,othersbelievethatitwastheworkofanartisticmonkfromanearbyprioryandwascreatedbetweenthe11thand15thcenturies.Themethodofcuttingthesehugefigureswassimplytoremovetheoverlyinggrasstorevealthegleamingwhitechalkbelow.However,thegrasswouldsoongrowoverthegeoglyphagainunlessitwasregularlycleanedorscouredbyafairlylargeteamofpeople.Onereasonthatthevastmajorityofhillfigureshavedisappearedisthatwhenthetraditionsassociatedwiththefiguresfaded,peoplenolongerbotheredorrememberedtoclearawaythegrasstoexposethechalkoutline.Furthermore,overhundredsofyearstheoutlineswouldsometimeschangeduetopeoplenotalwayscuttinginexactlythesameplace,thuscreatingadifferentshapetotheoriginalgeoglyph.ThefactthatanyancienthillfiguressurviveatallinEnglandtodayistestamenttothestrengthandcontinuityoflocalcustomsandbeliefswhich,inonecaseatleast,muststretchbackovermillennia.TheUffingtonWhiteHorseisaunique,stylisedrepresentationofahorseconsistingofalong,sleekback,thindisjointedlegs,astreamingtail,andabird-likebeakedhead.Theelegantcreaturealmostmeltsintothelandscape.Thehorseissituated2.5kmfromUffingtonvillageonasteepslopeclosetotheLateBronzeAge*(c.7thcenturyBCE)hillfortofUffingtonCastleandbelowtheRidgeway,along-distanceNeolithic**track.TheUffingtonHorseisalsosurroundedbyBronzeAgeburialmounds.ItisnotfarfromtheBronzeAgecemeteryofLambournSevenBarrows,whichconsistsofmorethan30well-preservedburialmounds.Thecarvinghasbeenplacedinsuchawayastomakeitextremelydifficulttoseefromclosequarters,andlikemanygeoglyphsisbestappreciatedfromtheair.Nevertheless,therearecertainareasoftheValeoftheWhiteHorse,thevalleycontainingandnamedaftertheenigmaticcreature,fromwhichanadequateimpressionmaybegained.Indeedonacleardaythecarvingcanbeseenfromupto30kmaway.TheearliestevidenceofahorseatUffingtonisfromthe1070sCEwhenWhiteHorseHillismentionedindocumentsfromthenearbyAbbeyofAbingdon,andthefirstreferencetothehorseitselfissoonafter,in1190CE.However,thecarvingisbelievedtodatebackmuchfurtherthanthat.DuetothesimilarityoftheUffingtonWhiteHorsetothestyliseddepictionsofhorseson1stcenturyBCEcoins,ithadbeenthoughtthatthecreaturemustalsodatetothatperiod.However,in1995OpticallyStimulatedLuminescence(OSL)testingwascarriedoutbytheOxfordArchaeologicalUnitonsoilfromtwoofthelowerlayersofthehorsesbody,andfromanothercutnearthebase.Theresultwasadateforthehorsesconstructionsomewherebetween1400and600BCE-inotherwords,ithadaLateBronzeAgeorEarlyIronAgeorigin.ThelatterendofthisdaterangewouldtiethecarvingofthehorseinwithoccupationofthenearbyUffingtonhillfort,indicatingthatitmayrepresentatribalemblemmarkingthelandoftheinhabitantsofthehillfort.Alternatively,thecarvingmayhavebeencarriedoutduringaBronzeorIronAgeritual.SomeresearchersseethehorseasrepresentingtheCeltic***horsegoddessEpona,whowasworshippedasaprotectorofhorses,andforherassociationswithfertility.However,thecultofEponawasnotimportedfromGaul(France)untilaroundthefirstcenturyCE.ThisdateisatleastsixcenturiesaftertheUffingtonHorsewasprobablycarved.Nevertheless,thehorsehadgreatritualandeconomicsignificanceduringtheBronzeandIronAges,asattestedbyitsdepictionsonjewelleryandothermetalobjects.Itispossiblethatthecarvingrepresentsagoddessinnativemythology,suchasRhiannon,describedinlaterWelshmythologyasabeautifulwomandressedingoldandridingawhitehorse.Thefactthatgeoglyphscandisappeareasily,alongwiththeirassociatedritualsandmeaning,indicatesthattheywereneverintendedtobeanythingmorethantemporarygestures.Butthisdoesnotlessentheirimportance.Thesegiantcarvingsareafascinatingglimpseintothemindsoftheircreatorsandhowtheyviewedthelandscapeinwhichtheylived.Question1-8DothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassageI?Inboxes1-8onyouranswersheet,writeTRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeinformationFALSEifthestatementcontradictstheinformationNOTGIVENifthereisnoinformationonthis