RomantunnelsTheRomans,whooncecontrolledareasofEurope,NorthAfricaandAsiaMinor,adoptedtheconstructiontechniquesofothercivilizationstobuildtunnelsintheirterritoriesThePersians,wholivedinpresent-dayIran,wereoneofthefirstcivilizationstobuildtunnelsthatprovidedareliablesupplyofwatertohumansettlementsindryareas.IntheearlyfirstmillenniumBCE,theyintroducedtheqanatmethodoftunnelconstruction,whichconsistedofplacingpostsoverahillinastraightline,toensurethatthetunnelkepttoitsroute,andthendiggingverticalshaftsdownintothegroundatregularintervals.Underground,workersremovedtheearthfrombetweentheendsoftheshafts,creatingatunnel.Theexcavatedsoilwastakenuptothesurfaceusingtheshafts,whichalsoprovidedventilationduringthework.Oncethetunnelwascompleted,itallowedwatertoflowfromthetopofahillsidedowntowardsacanal,whichsuppliedwaterforhumanuse.Remarkably,someqanatsbuiltbythePersians2,700yearsagoarestillinusetoday.TheylaterpassedontheirknowledgetotheRomans,whoalsousedtheqanatmethodtoconstructwater-supplytunnelsforagriculture.Romanqanattunnelswereconstructedwithverticalshaftsdugatintervalsofbetween30and60meters.Theshaftswereequippedwithhandholdsandfootholdstohelpthoseclimbinginandoutofthemandwerecoveredwithawoodenorstonelid.Toensurethattheshaftswerevertical,Romanshungaplumblinefromarodplacedacrossthetopofeachshaftandmadesurethattheweightattheendofithunginthecenteroftheshaft.Plumblineswerealsousedtomeasurethedepthoftheshaftandtodeterminetheslopeofthetunnel.The5.6-kilometer-longClaudiustunnel,builtin41CEtodraintheFucineLakeincentralItaly,hadshaftsthatwereupto122metersdeep,took11yearstobuildandinvolvedapproximately30,000workers.Bythe6thcenturyBCE,asecondmethodoftunnelconstructionappearedcalledthecounter-excavationmethod,inwhichthetunnelwasconstructedfrombothends.Itwasusedtocutthroughhighmountainswhentheqanatmethodwasnotapracticalalternative.Thismethodrequiredgreaterplanningandadvancedknowledgeofsurveying,mathematicsandgeometryasbothendsofatunnelhadtomeetcorrectlyatthecenterofthemountain.Adjustmentstothedirectionofthetunnelalsohadtobemadewheneverbuildersencounteredgeologicalproblemsorwhenitdeviatedfromitssetpath.Theyconstantlycheckedthetunnelsadvancingdirection,forexample,bylookingbackatthelightthatpenetratedthroughthetunnelmouth,andmadecorrectionswhenevernecessary.Largedeviationscouldhappen,andtheycouldresultinoneendofthetunnelnotbeingusable.Aninscriptionwrittenonthesideofa428-metertunnel,builtbytheRomansaspartoftheSaldaeaqueductsysteminmodern-dayAlgeria,describeshowthetwoteamsofbuildersmissedeachotherinthemountainandhowthelaterconstructionofalaterallinkbetweenbothcorridorscorrectedtheinitialerror.TheRomansdugtunnelsfortheirroadsusingthecounter-excavationmethod,whenevertheyencounteredobstaclessuchashillsormountainsthatweretoohighforroadstopassover.Anexampleisthe37-meter-long,6-meter-high,FurloPassTunnelbuiltinItalyin69-79CE.Remarkably,amodernroadstillusesthistunneltoday.Tunnelswerealsobuiltformineralextraction.Minerswouldlocateamineralveinandthenpursueitwithshaftsandtunnelsunderground.TracesofsuchtunnelsusedtominegoldcanstillbefoundattheDolaucothiminesinWales.Whenthesolepurposeofatunnelwasmineralextraction,constructionrequiredlessplanning,asthetunnelroutewasdeterminedbythemineralvein.Romantunnelprojectswerecarefullyplannedandcarriedout.Thelengthoftimeittooktoconstructatunneldependedonthemethodbeingusedandthetypeofrockbeingexcavated.Theqanatconstructionmethodwasusuallyfasterthanthecounter-excavationmethodasitwasmorestraightforward.Thiswasbecausethemountaincouldbeexcavatednotonlyfromthetunnelmouthsbutalsofromshafts.Thetypeofrockcouldalsoinfluenceconstructiontimes.Whentherockwashard,theRomansemployedatechniquecalledfirequenchingwhichconsistedofheatingtherockwithfire,andthensuddenlycoolingitwithcoldwatersothatitwouldcrack.Progressthroughhardrockcouldbeveryslow,anditwasnotuncommonfortunnelstotakeyears,ifnotdecades,tobebuilt.ConstructionmarksleftonaRomantunnelinBolognashowthattherateofadvancethroughsolidrockwas30centimetersperday.Incontrast,therateofadvanceoftheClaudiustunnelcanbecalculatedat1.4metersperday.Mosttunnelshadinscriptionsshowingthenamesofpatronswhoorderedconstructionandsometimesthenameofthearchitect.Forexample,the1.4-kilometerÇevliktunnelinTurkey,builttodivertthefloodwaterthreateningtheharboroftheancientcityofSeleuceiaPieria,hadinscriptionsontheentrance,stillvisibletoday,thatalsoindicatethatthetunnelwasstartedin69CEandwascompletedin81CE.Question1-6Labelthediagramsbelow.ChooseONEWORDONLYfromthepassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes1-6onyouranswersheet.
WhyweneedtoprotectpolarbearsAPolarbearsarebeingincreasinglythreatenedbytheeffectsofclimatechange,buttheirdisappearancecouldhavefar-reachingconsequences.TheyareuniquelyadaptedtotheextremeconditionsoftheArcticCircle,wheretemperaturescanreach-40℃.Onereasonforthisisthattheyhaveupto11centimetresoffatunderneaththeirskin.Humanswithcomparativelevelsofadiposetissuewouldbeconsideredobeseandwouldbelikelytosufferfromdiabetesandheartdisease.Yetthepolarbearexperiencesnosuchconsequences.BA2014studybyShiPingLiuandcolleaguesshedslightonthismystery.Theycomparedthegeneticstructureofpolarbearswiththatoftheirclosestrelativesfromawarmerclimate,thebrownbears.ThisallowedthemtodeterminethegenesthathaveallowedpolarbearstosurviveinoneofthetoughestenvironmentsonEarth.LiuandhiscolleaguesfoundthepolarbearshadageneknownasAPoB,whichreduceslevelsoflow-densitylipoproteins(LDLs)-aformofbadcholesterol.Inhumans,mutationsofthisgeneareassociatedwithincreasedriskofheartdisease.Polarbearsmaythereforebeanimportantstudymodeltounderstandheartdiseaseinhumans.CThegenomeofthepolarbearmayalsoprovidethesolutionforanothercondition,onethatparticularlyaffectsouroldergeneration:osteoporosis.Thisisadiseasewherebonesshowreduceddensity,usuallycausedbyinsufficientexercise,reducedcalciumintakeorfoodstarvation.Bonetissueisconstantlybeingremodelled,meaningthatboneisaddedorremoved,dependingonnutrientavailabilityandthestressthattheboneisunder.Femalepolarbears,however,undergoextremeconditionsduringeverypregnancy.Onceautumncomesaround,thesefemaleswilldigmaternitydensinthesnowandwillremaintherethroughoutthewinter,bothbeforeandafterthebirthoftheircubs.Thisprocessresultsinaboutsixmonthsoffasting,wherethefemalebearshavetokeepthemselvesandtheircubsalive,depletingtheirowncalciumandcaloriereserves.Despitethis,theirbonesremainstronganddense.DPhysiologistsAlandaLennoxandAllenGoodshipfoundanexplanationforthisparadoxin2008.Theydiscoveredthatpregnantbearswereabletoincreasethedensityoftheirbonesbeforetheystartedtobuildtheirdens.Inaddition,sixmonthslater,whentheyfinallyemergedfromthedenwiththeircubs,therewasnoevidenceofsignificantlossofbonedensity.Hibernatingbrownbearsdonothavethiscapacityandmustthereforeresorttomajorbonereformationinthefollowingspring.Ifthemechanismofboneremodellinginpolarbearscanbeunderstood,manybedriddenhumans,andevenastronauts,couldpotentiallybenefit.EThemedicalbenefitsofthepolarbearforhumanitycertainlyhavetheirimportanceinourconservationefforts,buttheseshouldnotbetheonlyfactorstakenintoconsideration.Wetendtowanttoprotectanimalswethinkareintelligentandpossessemotions,suchaselephantsandprimates.Bears,ontheotherhand,seemtobeperceivedasstupidandinmanycasesviolent.Andyetanecdotalevidencefromthefieldchallengesthoseassumptions,suggestingforexamplethatpolarbearshavegoodproblem-solvingabilities.AmalebearcalledGoGoinTennojiZoo,Osaka,hasevenbeenobservedmakinguseofatooltomanipulatehisenvironment.Thebearusedatreebranchonmultipleoccasionstodislodgeapieceofmeathungoutofhisreach.Problem-solvingabilityhasalsobeenwitnessedinwildpolarbears,althoughnotasobviouslyaswithGoGo.Acalculatedmovebyamalebearinvolvedrunningandjumpingontobarrelsinanattempttogettoaphotographerstandingonaplatformfourmetreshigh.FInotherstudies,suchasonebyAlisonAmesin2008,polarbearsshoweddeliberateandfocussedmanipulation.Forexample,Amesobservedbearsputtingobjectsinpilesandthenknockingthemoverinwhatappearedtobeagame.Thestudydemonstratesthatbearsarecapableofagileandthought-outbehaviours.Theseexamplessuggestbearshavegreatercreativityandproblem-solvingabilitiesthanpreviouslythought.GAsforemotions,whiletheevidenceisonceagainanecdotal,manybearshavebeenseentohitoutaticeandsnow-seeminglyoutoffrustration-whentheyhavejustmissedoutonakill.Moreover,polarbearscanformunusualrelationshipswithotherspecies,includingplayingwiththedogsusedtopullsledsintheArctic.Remarkably,onehand-raisedpolarbearcalledAgeehasformedacloserelationshipwithherownerMarkDumastothepointwheretheyevenswimtogether.Thisisevenmoreastonishingsincepolarbearsareknowntoactivelyhunthumansinthewild.HIfclimatechangeweretoleadtotheirextinction,thiswouldmeannotonlythelossofpotentialbreakthroughsinhumanmedicine,butmoreimportantly,thedisappearanceofanintelligent,majesticanimal.Question1-7DothefollowingstatementagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassage1?Inboxed1-7onyouranswersheet,writeTRUEifthestatementagreeswiththeinformationFALSEifthestatementcontradictstheinformationNOTGIVENifthereisnoinformationonthis
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Question 1-10Complete the notes below.WriteONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBERfor each answer.Holiday rentalOwners names:Jack Fitzgerald and Shirley FitzgeraldGranary Cottage• available for week beginning 1 May• cost for the week: £ 23 Cottage• cost for the week: £480• building was originally a 4• walk through doors from living room into a 5• several 6 spaces at the front• bathroom has a shower• central heating and stove that burns 7• views of old 8 from living room• view of hilltop 9 from the bedroomPayment• deposit: £144• deadline for final payment: end of 10
Question21-24Choosethecorrectletter,A,BorC.Question25-30Whoisgoingtodoresearchintoeachtopic?Writethecorrectletter,A,BorC,nexttoQuestions25-30.Topics25thegoodsthatarerefrigerated 25 26theeffectsonhealth 26 27theimpactonfoodproducers 27 28theimpactoncities 28 29refrigeratedtransport 29 30domesticfridges 30 PeopleA.AnnieB.JackC.bothAnnieandJack
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【参考范例一】
Question11-14Choosethecorrectletter,A,BorC.Question15-20Completethetablebelow.WriteONEWORDAND/ORANUMBERforeachanswer.TimetableforIsleofManholidayActivityNotes Day1 ArriveIntroductionbymanagerHoteldiningroomhasviewofthe15 Day2 TynwaldExhibitionandPeelTynwaldmayhavebeenfoundedin 16not979. Day3 TriptoSnaefellTravelalongpromenadeinatram;traintoLaxey;traintothe17 of Snaefell Day4 FreedayCompanyprovidesa18 for local transportandheritage sites. Day5 Take the 19 railway trainfromDouglastoPort ErinFreetime,thencoachtoCastletown– former 20has old castle.Day6LeaveLeavetheislandbyferryorplane
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ThereturnofthehuarangoThearidvalleysofsouthernPeruarewelcomingthereturnofanativeplantThesouthcoastofPeruisanarrow,2,000-kilometre-longstripofdesertsqueezedbetweentheAndesandthePacificOcean.ItisalsooneofthemostfragileecosystemsonEarth.Ithardlyeverrainsthere,andtheonlyyear-roundsourceofwaterislocatedtensofmetresbelowthesurface.Thisiswhythehuarangotreeissosuitedtolifethere:ithasthelongestrootsofanytreeintheworld.Theystretchdown50—80metresand,aswellassuckingupwaterforthetree,theybringitintothehighersubsoil,creatingawatersourceforotherplantlife.DrDavidBeresford-Jones,archaeobotanistatCambridgeUniversity,hasbeenstudyingtheroleofthehuarangotreeinlandscapechangeintheLowerIcaValleyinsouthernPeru.Hebelievesthehuarangowaskeytotheancientpeoplesdietand,becauseitcouldreachdeepwatersources,itallowedlocalpeopletowithstandyearsofdroughtwhentheirothercropsfailed.Butoverthecenturieshuarangotreesweregraduallyreplacedwithcrops.Cuttingdownnativewoodlandleadstoerosion,asthereisnothingtokeepthesoilinplace.Sowhenthehuarangosgo,thelandturnsintoadesert.NothinggrowsatallintheLowerIcaValleynow.ForcenturiesthehuarangotreewasvitaltothepeopleoftheneighbouringMiddleIcaValleytoo.Theygrewvegetablesunderitandateproductsmadefromitsseedpods.Itsleavesandbarkwereusedforherbalremedies,whileitsbrancheswereusedforcharcoalforcookingandheating,anditstrunkwasusedtobuildhouses.Butnowitisdisappearingrapidly.Themajorityofthehuarangoforestsinthevalleyhavealreadybeenclearedforfuelandagriculture—initially,theseweresmallholdings,butnowtheyrehugefarmsproducingcropsfortheinternationalmarket.OftheforeststhatwerehereIyearsago,99percenthavealreadygone,saysbotanistOliverWhaleyfromKewGardensinLondon,who,togetherwithethnobotanistDrWilliamMilliken,isrunningapioneeringprojecttoprotectandrestoretherapidlydisappearinghabitat.Inordertosucceed,Whaleyneedstogetthelocalpeopleonboard,andthathasmeantovercominglocalprejudices.Increasinglyaspirationalcommunitiesthinkthatifyouplantfoodtreesinyourhomeorstreet,itshowsyouarepoor,andstillneedtogrowyourownfoodhesays.InordertostoptheMiddleIcaValleygoingthesamewayastheLowerIcaValley,Whaleyisencouraginglocalstolovethehuarangosagain.Itsaprocessofculturalresuscitation,hesays.Hehasalreadysetupahuarangofestivaltoreinstateasenseofprideintheireco-heritage,andhashelpedlocalschoolchildrenplantthousandsoftrees.Inordertogetpeopleinterestedinhabitatrestoration,youneedtoplantatreethatisusefultothem,saysWhaley.So,hehasbeenworkingwithlocalfamiliestoattempttocreateasustainableincomefromthehuarangosbyturningtheirproductsintofoodstuffs.Boilupthebeansandyougetthisthickbrownsyruplikemolasses.Youcanalsouseitindrinks,soupsorstews.Thepodscanbegroundintoflourtomakecakes,andtheseedsroastedintoasweet,chocolateycoffee.Itspackedfullofvitaminsandminerals,Whaleysays.Andsomefarmersarealreadyplantinghuarangos.AlbertoBenevides,ownerofIcaonlycertifiedorganicfarm,whichWhaleyhelpedsetup,hasbeenplantingthetreefor13years.Heproducessyrupandflour,andsellstheseproductsatanorganicfarmersmarketinLima.Hisfarmisrelativelysmallanddoesntyetprovidehimwithenoughtoliveon,buthehopesthiswillchange.TheorganicmarketisgrowingrapidlyinPeru,Benevidessays,Iaminvestinginthefuture.ButevenifWhaleycanconvincethelocalpeopletofallinlovewiththehuarangoagain,thereisstillthethreatofthelargerfarms.Someofthesecutacrosstheforestsandbreakupthecorridorsthatallowtheessentialmovementofmammals,birdsandpollenupanddownthenarrowforeststrip.Inthehopeofcounteractingthis,hespersuadingfarmerstolethimplantforestcorridorsontheirland.Hebelievestheextrawoodlandwillalsobenefitthefarmsbyreducingtheirwaterusagethroughaloweringofevaporationandprovidingarefugeforbio-controlinsects.Ifwecanrecordbiodiversityandseehowitallworks,thenwereinagoodpositiontomoveonfromthere.Deserthabitatscanreducedowntoverylittle,Whaleyexplains.Itsnotlikearainforestthatneedstohavethishugeexpanse.Lifehasalwaysbeenconfinedtocorridorsandislandshere.Ifyoujusthaveafewtreesleft,thepopulationcangrowupquicklybecauseitsusedtoexploitingwaterwhenitarrives.Heseeshisprojectasamodelthathasthepotentialtoberolledoutacrossotheraridareasaroundtheworld.Ifwecandoithere,inthemostfragilesystemonEarth,thenthatsarealmessageofhopeforlotsofplaces,includingAfrica,wherethereisdroughtandtheyjustcantaffordtowaitforrain.
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HenryMoore(1898-1986)TheBritishsculptorHenryMoorewasaleadingfigureinthe20th-centuryartworldHenryMoorewasborninCastleford,asmalltownnearLeedsinthenorthofEngland.HewastheseventhchildofRaymondMooreandhiswifeMaryBaker.HestudiedatCastlefordGrammarSchoolfrom1909to1915,wherehisearlyinterestinartwasencouragedbyhisteacherAliceGostick.Afterleavingschool,Moorehopedtobecomeasculptor,butinsteadhecompliedwithhisfatherswishthathetrainasaschoolteacher.Hehadtoabandonhistrainingin1917whenhewassenttoFrancetofightintheFirstWorldWar.Afterthewar,MooreenrolledattheLeedsSchoolofArt,wherehestudiedfortwoyears.Inhisfirstyear,hespentmostofhistimedrawing.Althoughhewantedtostudysculpture,noteacherwasappointeduntilhissecondyear.Attheendofthatyear,hepassedthesculptureexaminationandwasawardedascholarshiptotheRoyalCollegeofArtinLondon.InSeptember1921,hemovedtoLondonandbeganthreeyearsofadvancedstudyinsculpture.AlongsidetheinstructionhereceivedattheRoyalCollege,MoorevisitedmanyoftheLondonmuseums,particularlytheBritishMuseum,whichhadawide-rangingcollectionofancientsculpture.Duringthesevisits,hediscoveredthepowerandbeautyofancientEgyptianandAfricansculpture.Ashebecameincreasinglyinterestedintheseprimitiveformsofart,heturnedawayfromEuropeansculpturaltraditions.Aftergraduating,Moorespentthefirstsixmonthsof1925travellinginFrance.WhenhevisitedtheTrocaderoMuseuminParis,hewasimpressedbyacastofaMayanssculptureoftherainspirit.Itwasamalerecliningfigurewithitskneesdrawnuptogether,anditsheadatarightangletoitsbody.Moorebecamefascinatedwiththisstonesculpture,whichhethoughthadapowerandoriginalitythatnootherstonesculpturepossessed.Hehimselfstartedcarvingavarietyofsubjectsinstone,includingdepictionsofrecliningwomen,mother-and-childgroups,andmasks.Mooresexceptionaltalentsoongainedrecognition,andin1926hestartedworkasasculptureinstructorattheRoyalCollege.In1933,hebecameamemberofagroupofyoungartistscalledUnitOne.TheaimofthegroupwastoconvincetheEnglishpublicofthemeritsoftheemerginginternationalmovementinmodernartandarchitecture.NOTE:Mayan:belongingtoanancientcivilisationthatinhabitedpartsofcurrent-dayMexico,Guatemala,Belize,ELSalvadorandHonduras.Aroundthistime,Mooremovedawayfromthehumanfiguretoexperimentwithabstractshapes.In1931,heheldanexhibitionattheLeicesterGalleriesinLondon.Hisworkwasenthusiasticallywelcomedbyfellowsculptors,butthereviewsinthepresswereextremelynegativeandturnedMooreintoanotoriousfigure.TherewerecallsforhisresignationfromtheRoyalCollege,andthefollowingyear,whenhiscontractexpired,helefttostartasculpturedepartmentattheChelseaSchoolofArtinLondon.Throughoutthe1930s,MooredidnotshowanyinclinationtopleasetheBritishpublic.HebecameinterestedinthepaintingsoftheSpanishartistPabloPicasso,whoseworkinspiredhimtodistortthehumanbodyinaradicalway.Attimes,heseemedtoabandonthehumanfigurealtogether.Thepagesofhissketchbooksfromthisperiodshowhisideasforabstractsculpturesthatborelittleresemblancetothehumanform.In1940,duringtheSecondWorldWar,MoorestoppedteachingattheChelseaSchoolandmovedtoafarmhouseabout20milesnorthofLondon.Ashortageofmaterialsforcedhimtofocusondrawing.HedidnumeroussmallsketchesofLondoners,laterturningtheseideasintolargecoloureddrawingsinhisstudio.In1942,hereturnedtoCastlefordtomakeaseriesofsketchesoftheminerswhoworkedthere.In1944,Harlow,atownnearLondon,offeredMooreacommissionforasculpturedepictingafamily.TheresultingworksignifiesadramaticchangeinMooresstyle,awayfromtheexperimentationofthe1930stowardsamorenaturalandhumanisticsubjectmatter.Hediddozensofstudiesinclayforthesculpture,andthesewerecastinbronzeandissuedineditionsofseventoninecopieseach.Inthisway,Mooresworkbecameavailabletocollectorsallovertheworld.Theboosttohisincomeenabledhimtotakeonambitiousprojectsandstartworkingonthescalehefelthissculpturedemanded.CriticswhohadbeguntothinkthatMoorehadbecomelessrevolutionarywereprovenwrongbytheappearance,in1950,ofthefirstofMooredseriesofstandingfiguresinbronze,withtheirharshandangularpiercedformsanddistinctimpressionofmenace.Moorealsovariedhissubjectmatterinthe1950swithsuchworksasWarriorwithShieldandFallingWarrior.ThesewererareexamplesofMooresuseofthemalefigureandowesomethingtohisvisittoGreecein1951,whenhehadtheopportunitytostudyancientworksofart.Inhisfinalyears,MoorecreatedtheHenryMooreFoundationtopromoteartappreciationandtodisplayhiswork.MoorewasthefirstmodernEnglishsculptortoachieveinternationalcriticalacclaimandheisstillregardedasoneofthemostimportantsculptorsofthe20thcentury.
Question15-20Labelthemapbelow.Writethecorrectletter,A-I,nexttoQuestions15-20.
WhyfairytalesarereallyscarytalesSomepeoplethinkthatfairytalesarejuststoriestoamusechildren,buttheiruniversalandenduringappealmaybeduetomoreseriousreasonsPeopleofeveryculturetelleachotherfairytalesbutthesamestoryoftentakesavarietyofformsindifferentpartsoftheworld.InthestoryofLittleRedRidingHoodthatEuropeanchildrenarefamiliarwith,ayounggirlonthewaytoseehergrandmothermeetsawolfandtellshimwheresheisgoing.Thewolfrunsonaheadanddisposesofthegrandmother,thengetsintobeddressedinthegrandmothersclothestowaitforLittleRedRidingHood.Youmaythinkyouknowthestory-butwhichversion?Insomeversions,thewolfswallowsupthegrandmother,whileinothersitlocksherinacupboard.InsomestoriesRedRidingHoodgetsthebetterofthewolfonherown,whileinothersahunterorawoodcutterhearshercriesandcomestoherrescue.Theuniversalappealofthesetalesisfrequentlyattributedtotheideathattheycontaincautionarymessages:inthecaseofLittleRedRidingHood,tolistentoyourmother,andavoidtalkingtostrangers.Itmightbewhatwefindinterestingaboutthisstoryisthatitsgotthissurvival-relevantinformationinit,saysanthropologistJamieTehraniatDurhamUniversityintheUK.Buthisresearchsuggestsotherwise.Wehavethishugegapinourknowledgeaboutthehistoryandprehistoryofstorytelling,despitethefactthatweknowthisgenreisanincrediblyancientone,hesays.Thathasntstoppedanthropologists,folklorists*andotheracademicsdevisingtheoriestoexplaintheimportanceoffairytalesinhumansociety.NowTehranihasfoundawaytotesttheseideas,borrowingatechniquefromevolutionarybiologists.*Folklorists:thosewhostudytraditionalstoriesToworkouttheevolutionaryhistory,developmentandrelationshipsamonggroupsoforganisms,biologistscomparethecharacteristicsoflivingspeciesinaprocesscalledphylogeneticanalysis.Tehranihasusedthesameapproachtocomparerelatedversionsoffairytalestodiscoverhowtheyhaveevolvedandwhichelementshavesurvivedlongest.TehranisanalysisfocusedonLittleRedRidingHoodinitsmanyforms,whichincludeanotherWesternfairytaleknownasTheWolfandtheKids.CheckingforvariantsofthesetwotalesandsimilarstoriesfromAfrica,EastAsiaandotherregions,heendedupwith58storiesrecordedfromoraltraditions.Oncehisphylogeneticanalysishadestablishedthattheywereindeedrelated,heusedthesamemethodstoexplorehowtheyhavedevelopedandalteredovertime.Firsthetestedsomeassumptionsaboutwhichaspectsofthestoryalterleastasitevolves,indicatingtheirimportance.Folkloristsbelievethatwhathappensinastoryismorecentraltothestorythanthecharactersinit-thatvisitingarelative,onlytobemetbyascaryanimalindisguise,ismorefundamentalthanwhetherthevisitorisalittlegirlorthreesiblings,ortheanimalisatigerinsteadofawolf.However,Tehranifoundnosignificantdifferenceintherateofevolutionofincidentscomparedwiththatofcharacters.Certainepisodesareverystablebecausetheyarecrucialtothestory,buttherearelotsofotherdetailsthatcanevolvequitefreely,hesays.Neitherdidhisanalysissupportthetheorythatthecentralsectionofastoryisthemostconservedpart.Hefoundnosignificantdifferenceintheflexibilityofeventstherecomparedwiththebeginningortheend.Butthereallybigsurprisecamewhenhelookedatthecautionaryelementsofthestory.Studiesonhunter-gathererfolktalessuggestthatthesenarrativesincludereallyimportantinformationabouttheenvironmentandthepossibledangersthatmaybefacedthere-stuffthatsrelevanttosurvival,hesays.Yetinhisanalysissuchelementswerejustasflexibleasseeminglytrivialdetails.What,then,isimportantenoughtobereproducedfromgenerationtogeneration?Theanswer,itwouldappear,isfear-blood-thirstyandgruesomeaspectsofthestory,suchastheeatingofthegrandmotherbythewolf,turnedouttobethebestpreservedofall.Whyarethesedetailsretainedbygenerationsofstorytellers,whenotherfeaturesarenot?Tehranihasanidea:Inanoralcontext,astorywontsurvivebecauseofonegreatteller.Italsoneedstobeinterestingwhenitstoldbysomeonewhosnotnecessarilyagreatstoryteller.Maybebeingswallowedwholebyawolf,thencutoutofitsstomachaliveissogrippingthatithelpsthestoryremainpopular,nomatterhowbadlyitstold.JackZipesattheUniversityofMinnesota,Minneapolis,isunconvincedbyTehranisviewsonfairytales.Eveniftheyregruesome,theywontstickunlesstheymatter,hesays.HebelievestheperennialthemeofwomenasvictimsinstorieslikeLittleRedRidingHoodexplainswhytheycontinuetofeelrelevant.ButTehranipointsoutthatalthoughthisisoftenthecaseinWesternversions,itisnotalwaystrueelsewhere.InChineseandJapaneseversions,oftenknownasTheTigerGrandmother,thevillainisawoman,andinbothIranandNigeria,thevictimisaboy.MathiasClasenatAarhusUniversityinDenmarkisntsurprisedbyTehranisfindings.Habitsandmoralschange,butthethingsthatscareus,andthefactthatweseekoutentertainmentthafsdesignedtoscareus-thoseareconstant,hesays.Clasenbelievesthatscarystoriesteachuswhatitfeelsliketobeafraidwithouthavingtoexperiencerealdanger,andsobuildupresistancetonegativeemotions.
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Questions11-14Choosethecorrectletter,A,BorC.Question15-20Labelthemapbelow.Writethecorrectletter,A—I,nexttoQuestions15—20.A.AB.BC.CD.DE.EF.FG.GH.HI.I