单选题All the references she has obtained for her doctoral dissertation______about twenty items.

单选题Passage 4 In the early 1950's historians who studied pre-industrial Europe (which we may define here as Europe in the period from roughly 1300 to 1800) began, for the first time in large numbers, to investigate more of the pre-industrial European population than the 2 or 3 percent who comprised the political and social elite; the kings, generals, judges, nobles, bishops and local magnates who had hitherto usually filled history books. One difficulty, however, was that few of the remaining 97 percent recorded their thoughts or had them chronicled by contemporaries. Faced with this situation, many historians based their investigations on the only records that seemed to exist: birth, marriage, and death records. As a result, much of the early work on the non-elite was aridly statistical in nature; reducing the vast majority of the population to a set of numbers was hardly more enlightening than ignoring them altogether. Historians still did not know what these people thought or felt. One way out of this dilemma was to turn to the records of legal courts for here the voices of the non-elite can most often be heard, as witnesses, plaintiffs, and defendants. These documents have acted as "a point of entry into the mental world of the poor." Historians such as Le Roy Ladurle have used the documents to extract case histories, which have illuminated the attitudes of different social groups (these attitudes include, but are not confined to, attitudes toward crime and the law) and have revealed how the authorities administered justice. It has been societies that have had a developed police system and practiced Roman law, with its written depositions, whose court records have yielded the most data to historians. In Anglo-Saxon countries hardly any of these benefits obtain, but it has still been possible to glean information from the study of legal documents. The extraction of case histories is not, however, the only use to which court record may be put. Historians who study pre-industrial Europe have used the records to establish a series of categories of crime and to quantify indictments that were issued over a given number of years. This use of records does yield some information about the non-elite, but this information gives us little insight into the mental lives of the non-elite. We also know that the number of indictments in pre-industrial Europe bears little relation to the number of actual criminal acts, and we strongly suspect that the relationship has varied widely over time. In addition, aggregate population estimates are very shaky, which makes it difficult for historians to compare rates of crime per thousand in one decade of the pre-industrial period with rates in another decade. Given these inadequacies, it is clear why the case history use of court records is to be preferred.

单选题Antiwar champion Rep. John Murtha wants to attach conditions on the impending supplemental bill to fund the war______ A. approbations B. approximations C. apprehensions D. appropriations

单选题Cranes are used to ______ building materials to the upper floors during the construction of skyscrapers.

单选题The author doubts the legal right to lie to friends as well as the one to ______.

单选题The new factory that has been built next to us has ______the value of our house. A. demoralized B. depreciated C. deterred D. derailed

单选题What's your attitude ______ his criticism?(2014年厦门大学考博试题)

单选题{{B}}Directions:{{/B}} There are 4 reading passages in this part. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C, and D. You should decide on the best choice and mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET by blackening the corresponding letter in the brackets. Music and literature, the two temporal arts, contrive their pattern of sounds in time; or, in other words of sounds and pauses. Communication may be made in broken words, the business of life be carried on with substantives alone; but that is not what we call literature; and the true business of the literary artist is to plait or weave his meaning, involving it around itself; so that each sentence, by successive phrases, shall first come into a kind of knot, and then, after a moment of suspended meaning, solve and clear itself. In every properly constructed sentence there should be observed this knot or hitch; so that (however delicately) we are led to foresee, to expect, and then to welcome the successive phrases. The pleasure may be heightened by an element of surprise, as, very grossly, in the common figure of the antithesis, or, with much greater subtlety, where an antithesis is first suggested and then deftly evaded. Each phrase, besides, is to be comely in itself; and between the implication and the evolution of the sentence there should be a satisfying equipoise of sound; for nothing more often disappoints the ear than a sentence solemnly and sonorously prepared, and hastily and weakly finished. Nor should the balance be too striking and exact, for the one rule is to be infinitely various; to interest, to disappoint, to surprise, and yet still to gratify; to be ever changing, as it were, the stitch, and yet still to give the effect of an ingenious neatness.

单选题Aristotle was one of those who could found a civilization, and while he thought of education as both a social value and an end in itself, he ascribed its chief importance (21) what might be considered a third basic concept of education: to train the mind to think, (22) what it is thinking about. The key is not (23) it knows but how it (24) any new fact or argument. "An educated man," Aristotle wrote in On the Parts of Animals, "should be able to (25) a fair offhand judgment as to the goodness or badness of the method used by a professor in his exposition. To be (26) is in fact to be able to do this." The Aristotle view of education as a (27) has become the conventionally worthy answer today (28) college presidents and other academic leaders are asked what an education should be. An educated man, says Harvard President Bok, (29) a deep breath, must have a "curiosity in (30) the unfamiliar and unexpected, an open-mindedness in entertaining opposing points of view, (31) for the ambiguity that surrounds so many important issues, and a willingness to make the best decision he can in the fact of uncertainty and doubt." This is an approach that appears to (32) more importance to the process of learning (33) to the substance of what is learned. The very old notion of the generalist who could comprehend all subjects has (34) been an impossibility. To make matters (35) more difficult, the fields of knowledge keep changing.

单选题Many critics of the current welfare system argue that existing welfare regulations foster family instability. They maintain that those regulations, which exclude most poor husband and wife families from Aid to Families with Dependent Children assistance grants, contribute to the problem of family dissolution. Thus, they conclude that expanding the set of families eligible for family assistance plans or guaranteed income measures would result in a marked strengthening of the low-income family structure. If all poor families could receive welfare, would the incidence of instability change markedly? The unhappily married couple, in most cases, remain together out of a sense of economic responsibility for their children, because of the high costs of separation, or because of the consumption benefits of marriage. The formation, maintenance, and dissolution of the family is in large part a function of the relative balance between the benefits and costs of marriage as seen by the individual members of the marriage. The major benefit generated by the creation of a family is the expansion of the set of consumption possibilities. The benefits from such a partnership depend largely on the relative dissimilarity of the resources or basic endowments each partner brings to the marriage. Persons with similar productive capacities have less economic "cement" holding their marriage together. Since the family performs certain function society regards as vital, a complex network of social and legal buttresses has evolved to reinforce marriage. Much of the variation in marital stability across income classes can be explained by the variation in costs of dissolution imposed by society, e. g. division of property, alimony, child support, and the social stigma attached to divorce. Marital stability is related to the costs of achieving an acceptable agreement on family consumption and production and to the prevailing social price of instability in the marriage partners social economic group. Expected AFDC income exerts pressures on family instability by reducing the cost of dissolution. To the extent that welfare is a form of government subsidized alimony payments, it reduces the institutional costs of separation and guarantees a minimal standard of living for wife and children. So welfare opportunities are a significant determinant of family instability in poor neighborhoods, but this is not the result of AFDC regulations that exclude most intact families from coverage. Rather, welfare instability occurs because public assistance lowers both the benefits of marriage and the costs of its disruption by providing a system of government subsidized alimony payments.

单选题Even in fresh water sharks hunt and kill. The Thresher shark, capable of lifting a small boat out of the water, has been sighted a mile inland on the Fowey River in Cornwall. Killer sharks swim rivers to reach Lake Nicaragua in Central America; they average one human victim each year. Sewage and garbage attract sharks inland. When floods carry garbage to the rivers they provide a rich diet which sometimes stimulates an epidemic of shark attacks. Warm water generally provides shark food, and a rich diet inflames the shark's aggression. In British waters sharks usually swim peacefully between ten and twenty miles offshore where warm water currents fatten mackerel and pilchards for their food. But the shark is terrifyingly unpredictable. One seaman was severely mauled as far north as Wick in Scotland. Small boats have been attacked in the English Channel, Irish Sea and North Sea. Most of the legends about sharks are founded in ugly fact. Even a relatively small shark—a 200 lb. Zambezi—can sever a man's leg with one bite, Sharks have up to seven rows of teeth and as one front tooth is damaged or lost another moves forward to take its place. The shark never sleeps. Unlike most fish, it has no air bladder, and it must move constantly to avoid sinking. It is a primitive creature, unchanged for sixty million years of evolution. Its skin is without the specialized scales of a fish. Fully grown, it still has five pairs of separate gills like a three-week human embryo. But it is a brilliantly efficient machine. Its skin carries nerve endings which can detect vibrations from fish moving several miles away. Its sense of smell, the function of most of its brain, can detect one part in 600,000 of tuna fish juice in water, or the blood of a fish or animal from a quarter of a mile away. It is colour blind, and sees best in deep water, but it can distinguish shapes and patterns of light and shade easily. Once vibrations and smell have placed its prey the shark sees well enough to home in by vision for the last fifty feet. The shark eats almost anything. It will gobble old tin cans and broken bottles as well as fish, animals and humans. Beer bottles, shoes, wrist watches, car number plates, overcoats and other sharks have been found in dead sharks. Medieval records tell of entire human corpses still encased in armour. The United States military advice on repelling sharks is to stay clothed—sharks go for exposed flesh, especially the feet. Smooth swimming at the surface is essential. Frantic splashing will simply attract sharks, and dropping below the surface makes the swimmer an easy target. If the shark gets close, then is the time to kick, thrash and hit out. A direct hit on the snout, gills, or eyes will drive away most sharks. The exception is the Great White shark. It simply kills you.

单选题Five cloned piglets, genetically modified so that their organs are much less likely to be rejected by a human donor recipient, have been born in the US. More than 62000 people in the US alone are waiting to receive donated hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys and pancreases. The number of human donors falls far short of demand. Pig organs are of a similar size to human organs, and some scientists hope they might be used to help meet the shortfall. But previous attempts to transplant unaltered pig tissue into humans have failed, due to immune rejection of the tissue. The five piglets, born on Christmas Day, lack a gene for an enzyme that adds a sugar to the surface of pig ceils. The sugar would trigger a patient's immune system into launching an immediate attack. "This advance provides a near-time solution for overcoming the shortage of human organs for transplants, as well as insulin-producing cells to cure diabetes," says David Ayares, vice president of research at PPL Therapeutics, US division, where the pigs were created. "This is the key gene for overcoming the early stage of rejection. " However, scientists warn that much more work is necessary before organs from copies of the pigs could be transplanted into humans. Human genes will need to be added, to prevent rejection of the organ in the long-term. There are also concerns that pig viruses could infect organ recipients. Cloning techniques were vital to the production of the pigs. Genes can only be knocked out in a single cell. Cloning of these single cells then allowed the creation of a whole animal in which the gene was knocked out in every cell. But the PPL researchers have succeeded in knocking out only one copy of the gene for the enzyme, called alpha 1, 3 galactosyl transferase, The team will now attempt to knock out both copies of the gene. "There will also be other genes we will incorporate into our program," Ayares says. "We don't think that one gene is going to produce an organ that's going to be the end-all for transplantation. We're going to have to add two to three human genes as well. " The team will also conduct tests to investigate whether so-called porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVS) from the pigs could infect human cells in culture. But Ayares hopes that organs created from PPL pigs could be transplanted into patients within five years. "But although a lot of the stem cell work is very exciting, we're still very far off being able to grow an organ in a culture dish," says Julia Greenstein of Immerge Bio Therapeutics in Charlestown, US, who is working on creating similar knock-out pigs with researchers at the University of Missouri.

单选题Notable' as important nineteenth-century novels by women, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein and Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights treat women very differently. Shelley produced a "masculine" text in which the fates of subordinate female characters seem entirely dependent on the actions of male heroes or anti-heroes. Bronte produced a more realistic narrative portraying a world where men battle for the favors of apparently high-spirited, independent women. Nevertheless, these two novels are alike in several crucial ways. Many readers are convinced that the compelling mysteries of each plot conceal elaborate structures of allusion and fierce, though shadowy, moral ambitions that seem to indicate metaphysical intentions, though efforts by critics to articulate these intentions have generated much controversy. Both novelists use a storytelling method that emphasizes ironic disjunctions between different perspectives on the same events as well as ironic tensions that inhere in the relationship between surface drama and concealed authorial intention, a method I call an evidentiary narrative technique.

单选题One of the many theories about alcoholism is the learning and reinforcement theory, which explains alcoholism by considering alcohoi ingestion as a reflex response to some stimulus and as a way to reduce an inner drive state such as fear or anxiety. Characterizing life situations in terms of approach and avoidance, this theory holds that persons tend to be drawn to pleasant situations or repelled by unpleasant ones. In the latter case, alcohol ingestion is said to reduce the tension or feelings of unpleasantness and to replace them with the feeling of euphoria generally observed in most persons after they have consumed one or more drinks. Some experimental evidence tends to show that alcohol reduces fear in an approachavoidance situation. Conger trained one group of rats to approach a food goal and, using aversive conditioning, trained another group to avoid electric shock. After an injection of alcohol the pull away from the shock was measurably weaker, while the pull toward the food was unchanged. The obvious troubles experienced by alcoholic persons appear to contradict the learning theory in the explanation of alcoholism. The discomfort, pain, and punishment they experience should presumably serve as a deterrent to drinking. The fact that alcoholic persons continue to drink in the face of family discord, loss of employment, illness, and other sequels of repeated bouts is explained by the proximity of the drive reduction to the consumption of alcohol; that is, alcohol has the immediate effect of reducing tension while the unpleasant consequences of drunken behavior come only later. The learning paradigm, therefore, favors the establishment and repetition of the resort to alcohol. In fact, the anxieties and feelings of guilt induced by the consequences of excessive alcohol ingestion may themselves become the signal for another bout of alcohol abuse. The way in which the clue for another bout could be the anxiety itself is explained by the process of stimulus generalization: conditions or events occurring at the time of reinforcement tend to acquire the characteristics of stimuli. When alcohol is consumed in association with a state of anxiety or fear, the emotional state itself takes on the properties of a stimulus, thus triggering another drinking bout. The role of punishment is becoming increasingly important in formulating a cause of alcoholism based on the principles of learning theory. While punishment may serve to suppress a response, experiments have shown that in some cases it can serve as a reward and reinforce the behavior. Thus if the alcoholic person has learned to drink under conditions of both reward and punishment, either type of condition may precipitate renewed drinking. Ample experimental evidence supports the hypothesis that excessive alcohol consumption can be learned. By gradually increasing the concentration of alcohol in drinking water, psychologists have been able to induce the ingestion of larger amounts of alcohol by an animal than would be normally consumed. Other researchers have been able to achieve similar results by varying the schedule of reinforcement; that is, by requiring the animal to consume larger and larger amounts of the alcohol solutions before rewarding it. In this manner, animals learn to drink enough to become dependent on alcohol in terms of demonstrating withdrawal symptoms.

单选题Even plants can run a fever, especially when they are under attack by insects or disease. But (71) humans, plants can have their temperature (72) from 3,000 feet away—straight up. A decade ago, (73) the infrared (红外线的) scanning technology developed for military purpose and other satellites, physicist Stephen Paley (74) a quick way to take the temperature of crops to determine (75) ones are under stress. The goal was to let farmers (76) target pesticide spraying (77) rain poison on a whole field, which (78) includes plants that don't have the pest problem. Even better, Paley's Remote Scanning Services Company could detect crop problem before they became (79) to the eye. Mounted on a plane flown at 3,000 feet (80) , an infrared scanner measured the heat emitted by crops. The data were (81) . into a color-coded map showing (82) plants were running "fevers". Farmers could then spot spray, using 50 to 70 percent less pesticide than they (83) would. The bad news is that Paley's company closed down in 1984, after only three years. Farmers (84) the new technology and long-term backers were hard (85) . But with the renewed concern about pesticides on produce, and refinements in infrared scanning, Paley hopes to (86) into operation. Agriculture experts have no doubt the technology works. "This technique can be used (87) 75 percent of agricultural land in the United States," says George Oerther of Texas A&M. Ray Jackson, who recently retired from the Department of Agriculture, thinks (88) infrared crop scanning could be adopted by the end of the decade, but (89) Paley finds the financial backing (90) he failed to obtain 10 years ago.

单选题He will simply not listen to anybody; he is ______ to argument. A. impervious B. imperceptible C. impassable D. blunt

单选题Viewers simply can watch what is on ______ a presentation via a keyboard, touch screen or mouse.