It"s bad biology to argue against the existence of animal emotions. Scientific research in evolutionary biology, cognitive ethology and social neuroscience support the view that numerous and diverse animals have rich and deep emotional lives. Emotions have evolved as adaptations in numerous species and they serve as a social glue to bond animals with one another. Emotions also catalyze and regulate a wide variety of social encounters among friends and competitors and permit animals to protect themselves adaptively and flexibly using various behavior patterns in a wide variety of venues. Charles Darwin"s well-accepted ideas about evolutionary continuity, that differences among species are differences in degree rather than kind, argue strongly for the presence of animal emotions, empathy, and even moral behavior. In practice, continuity allows us to connect the "evolutionary dots" among different species to highlight similarities in evolved traits including individual feelings and passions. What we have since learned about animal emotions and empathy fits in well with what we know about the lifestyle of different species—how complex their social interactions and social networks are. Emotions, empathy, and knowing right from wrong are keys to survival, without which animals—both human and nonhuman-would perish. That"s how important they are. The borders between "them"(animals)and "us" are murky and permeable. Studying animal emotions addresses a number of big questions concerning how science is conducted. Many skeptics feel that we are so uncertain about whether other animals have any sort of emotional life that they prefer to put off weighing in until we know more. For some, this really means waiting until we are absolutely sure. But science is never as certain as many would like it to be. Climate change researcher Henry Pollack says it well in his book Uncertain Science... Uncertain World: "Because uncertainty never disappears, decisions about the future, big and small, must always be made in the absence of certainty. Waiting until uncertainty is eliminated is an implicit endorsement of the status quo, and often an excuse for maintaining it. . . Uncertainty, far from being a barrier to progress, is actually a strong stimulus for, and an important ingredient of, creativity. " I often begin my lectures with the question: "Is there anyone in this audience who thinks that dogs don"t have feelings that they don"t experience joy and sadness?" I"ve never had an enthusiastic response to this question, even in scientific gatherings, although on occasion a hand or two goes up slowly, usually halfway, as the person glances around to see if anyone is watching. But if I ask, "How many of you believe that dogs have feelings?" then almost every hand waves wildly and people smile and nod in vigorous agreement. Using behavior as our guide, by analogy we map the feelings of other beings onto our own emotional templates, and we do it very reliably.

We make hundreds of choices everyday in our lives, from the minor to the enormous, and what we are thinking at the time, whether it be conscious or subconscious, will have a huge effect on our decisions. In fact, there are several things that can affect the decisions that we make, the weather, the time, our mood, but most importantly, our attitude towards life. It"s natural that the kind of person you are, would reflect the choices that you make in life. A cynical, pessimistic person, will make decisions based on their world views and ideas and their negativity will be reflected in their choices. When giving a choice, they will assume that the outcome will not be the one they desire and therefore they will not think carefully about the decision itself, but they will think about anything that could go wrong when making the decision, because they genuinely believe it will. And due to their cynical nature, and in believing that they will not have the outcome they desire, they will very often miss out on things that would be good for them, because they think it is too good to be true and they do not trust the person offering them the choice. A positive, optimistic person will make a decision, believing that the outcome will be the one they desire, they will think more carefully about the decision than a negative person might, but they will not look at all of the angles and for possible flaws, holes or scams because of their trusting nature. Many people think that an arrogant person will not think about a decision as carefully as the rest, believing themselves to be right no matter what. But in fact, the arrogant person is more likely to think carefully about the decision, but because they think themselves to be such a good judge of everything, they will not think about all of the angles and any possible problems that they may run into. A person who worries a lot is a combination of the above three, they will think very carefully about the decision, and all of the possible angles. They will make their decision only after a great deal of thought and based on an illogical thought process, they will think more than the other three, but they will not think as clearly. An emotional person will make a decision based on instinct and the way they feel, they will think about the decision, but the deciding factor, whether they are conscious of it or not, is their gut feeling about the decision.

HousingGrowthandLandLossA.Studythegraphscarefullyandwriteanessayof160-200words.B.Youressayshouldcoverthesethreepoints:1)therelationshipbetweenhousinggrowthandlandloss2)possiblereasons3)yoursuggestions

In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable one from the list (A、B、C、D、E、F、G……) to fit into each of the numbered blank. There are several extra choices, which do not fit in any of the gaps. (10 points) The government panel that sets U.S. vaccine policy already has begun discussing "universal immunization" as a way to boost vaccination rates and reduce flu-linked sickness and death, Dr. Scott Harper of the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said at a vaccine meeting this week. (41)______. Harper acknowledged that the recent crisis momentarily upstaged universal immunization discussions, but said it remains a viable proposal. (42)______. The vaccine meeting, held every year, seeks to set an agenda for the upcoming flu season. Participants many with a financial stake in getting more people vaccinated—said the universal vaccination push is likely to come within the next five years. (43)______. Also, flu vaccine is altered every year because there are always different flu strains circulating. The unused vaccine is discarded at season"s end, making flu shots financially unappealing for manufacturers. (44)______. Sanofi Pasteur"s Philip Hosbach said the company has two idle U.S. factories "because there"s not the return on the investment". Universal vaccination could in the long term help stabilize supply if it increased demand, he said. (45)______. Demand has historically been a problem, too. Millions of the at-risk patients routinely skip annual shots. Some people worry the vaccine isn"t safe or they simply don"t like shots, but many also underestimate the seriousness of flu, said Dr. Ann O"Malley, a researcher at the Center for Studying Health System Change.A. "Part of our job is to just keep this issue on the radar screen", Harper told vaccine providers, distributors and manufacturers at the national flu vaccine summit here.B. So far only one company, Sanofi Pasteur, is licensed to make U.S. flu vaccine for the upcoming season, though public health officials hope two others, including Chiron, will soon gain approval.C. Estimates suggest that in an average year, flu infects about 82 million people nationwide, hospitalizes 200,000 and kills 36,000.D. Dr. Herb Young of the American Academy of Family Physicians said recommending shots for everyone could ease the confusion—and that his group is moving toward supporting the idea.E. The hurdles, some observers say, are daunting. Unstable supply is one of the biggest. This year the best case scenario—having about 90 million shots available—isn"t even enough for the 180 million high-risk people advised to get shots, let alone the total population of 280 million.F. The end of a chaotic season where many people seeking flu shots were turned away because of a shortage might seem an odd time to broach the idea of vaccinating even more people.G. But I"ra Longini, an Emory University biostatistician who specializes in vaccine analysis, said universal vaccination would be unworkable unless supply problems can be resolved.

When people talk about the digital divide, they usually mean the【C1】______between people who are benefiting from the information revolution, and those who through lack of【C2】______or money are【C3】______out. But at a United Nations conference in Brazil that concluded on April 19th, a different (though related) sort of divide was on【C4】______, and ten days" chatter by over 100 countries failed to【C5】______ it. If there was one thing on which almost everybody agreed, it was that criminals are【C6】______computer technology much faster【C7】______most governments are learning to foil them. Rich countries say they are【C8】______by fraudsters, pornographers and hackers operating【C9】______poor places where they will never be caught—because their "【C10】______" governments can"t or won"t stop them. One response is the Budapest Convention, an accord【C11】______at the Council of Europe in 2001, and ratified by the United States in 2006. One of its【C12】______is to let authorities in one country give【C13】______, at least electronically, to criminals in another. But Russia has【C14】______the principle of "transborder access", especially since 2000, when American agents hacked【C15】______the computers of two Russians who were【C16】______American banks.【C17】______, Russia is backing a UN treaty which would be respectful of borders while also giving police more powers to shut down websites【C18】______in "propaganda." Many countries like that idea—but not enough to push it【C19】______. For now, the only【C20】______are the criminals.

India has about a billion people and a dozen major languages of its own. One language, and only one, is understood-by the elite-across the country: that of the foreigners who ruled India for less than 200 years and left 52 years ago. Today, India. Tomorrow, unofficially, the world. That is well under way; at first, because the British not only built global empire but also it was settled by America, and now because the world (and notably America) has acquired its first truly global—and interactive—medium, the Internet. It is estimated that some 350 million people speak English as their first language. Maybe 250-350 million do or can use it as a second language; in excolonial countries, notably, or in English—majority ones, like 30 million recently immigrants to the United States, or Canada"s 6 million francophone Quebeckers. And elsewhere? The guess is 100 million—1 billion depending how you define "can". Let us be hold: in all, 20-25% of earth"s 6 billion people can use English; not the English of England, let alone of Dr. Johnson, but English. That number is soaring as each year brings new pupils to school and carries of monolingual oldies—and now as the Internet spreads. And the process is self-reinforcing. As business spreads across frontiers, the company that wants to move its executives around, and to promote the best of them, regardless of nationality, encourages the uses of English. So the executive who wants to be in the frame, or" to move to another employer, learns to use it. English has long dominated learned journals: German, Russian or French (depending on the field) may be useful to their expert readers, but English is essential. So, if you want your own work published—and widely read by your peers—then English is the language of choice. The growth of the cinema, and still more so of television, has spread the dominant language. Foreign movies or sitcoms may be dubbed into major languages, but for smaller audiences they are usually subtitled. Result: a Dutch or Danish or even Arab family has an audio-visual learning aid in its living-room, and usually the language spoken on-screen is English. The birth of the computer and its American operating systems gave English a nudge ahead: that of the Internet has given it a huge push. Any web-linked household today has a library of information available at the click of a mouse. And, unlike the books on its own shelves or in the public library, maybe four-fifths is written in English. That proportion may lessen, as more non-English sites spring up. But English will surely dominate.

You are going to read a list of headings and a text about market. Choose the most suitable heading.A. Market DataB. Market ProsperityC. Secret of SuccessD. Questions to AskE. Understanding Your MarketF. Market Research Successful small business expansions and new job formation lead the way in creating new markets, innovations and jobs that fuel economic growth and prosperity. In recognition of the importance of small business to a strong economy, the U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) is pleased to help meet the information needs of existing business owners and aspiring entrepreneurs. (41)______. Your business will not succeed just because you want it to succeed. Determining if there is a market for your products or services is the most critical item of planning. Once you decide on your product or service, you must analyze your market—process involving interviewing competitors, suppliers and new customers. Before you begin researching your market, however, you should take a brief, but dose, look at your product, or service from an objective standpoint. You should ask yourself the following questions:—s this product or service in constant demand?—How many competitors provide the same service or product?—Can I create a demand for my product or service?—Can I compete effectively in price, quality and delivery?—Can I price my product or service to assure a profit? Once you are satisfied that these preliminary questions are answered, move on to performing your research. (42)______. It is extremely beneficial to investigate a market because the information gathered can increase your profit potential. Specifically, it:—Indicates alternative sales approaches to your market.—Provides a more accurate base for making profit assumptions.—Aids in the organization of marketing activities.—Assists in the development of critical short/mid-term goals.—Helps establish your market"s profit boundaries. Unfortunately, many entrepreneurs fail to complete this critical section of their business plan. Collecting research data can be frustrating unless you have defined your goals and organized the collection and analysis process. To prevent this from happening, you must plan how you will collect, sort and analyze the information. Maintain a notebook and file in which to store, organize and retrieve data as needed. (43)______. Your research should ask these questions:—Who are your customers?—Where are they located?—What are their needs and resources?—Is your service or product essential in their operations or activities?—Can the customer afford your service or product?—Where can you create a demand for your service or product?—What areas within your market are declining or growing?—What is the general economy of your service or product area? (44)______. Knowing your market requires an understanding not only of your product, but also of your customers" socioeconomic characteristics. This information will serve as a map in letting you know what is ahead. More market information can be found in..—Library listings of trade associations and journals.—Regional planning organizations" studies on growth trends.—Banks, realtors and insurance companies.—Competitors.—Customer surveys in your market area. Once you have obtained and analyzed this information, it will become the foundation of your business plan. Research information is important because it supports the basic assumptions in your financial projection—your reason for going into business. (45)______. To be successful, a small business owner must know the market. Market research is simply an orderly, objective way of learning about people—the people who will buy from you.

OverlyProtectedChildWriteanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthedrawing.Inyouressay,youshould1)describethedrawingbriefly,2)explainitsintendedmeaning,and3)giveyourcomments.

BPart CDirections: Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese./B

Acid rain, which is a form of" air pollution, currently becomes a subject of great debate because of widespread environmental damage for which it has been blamed. It forms when oxides of sulfur and nitrogen combine with atmospheric moisture to yield sulfuric and nitric acids, which may then be carried long distances from their source before they drop in the form of rain. The pollution may also take the form of snow or fog or fall down in dry forms. In fact, although the term "acid rain" has been in use for more than a century—it is derived from atmospheric studies that were made in the region of Manchester, England—the more accurate scientific term would be" acid deposition. The dry form of such deposition is just as damaging to the environment as the liquid form. The problem of acid rain originated with the Industrial Revolution, and it has been growing ever since. The severity of its effects has long been recognized in local settings, as exemplified by the spells of acid smog in heavily industrialized areas. The widespread destructiveness of acid rain, however, has become evident only in recent decades. One large area that has been studied extensively is northern Europe, where acid rain has eroded structures, injured crops and forests, and threatened life in freshwater lakes. In 1984, for example, environmental reports indicated that almost half of the trees in Germany"s Black Forest had been damaged by acid rain. The northeastern United States and eastern Canada have also been particularly affected by this form of pollution; damage has also been detected in other areas of these countries and other regions of the world. Industrial emissions have been blamed as the major cause of acid rain. Because the chemical reactions involved in the production of acid rain in the atmosphere are complex and as yet little understood, industries have tended to challenge such assessments and to stress the need for further studies; and because of the cost of pollution reduction, governments have tended to support this attitude. Studies released by the US government in the early 1980s, however, strongly indicated industries as the main source of acid rain, in the eastern US and Canada.

A Recruitment Notice You are supposed to write for the Postgraduates' Association a notice to recruit volunteers for an international conference on globalization. The notice should include the basic qualifications for applicants and the other information which you think is relevant. Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use "Postgraduates' Association" instead.

Everyone would like a piece of the next Google or Facebook. But the big venture-capital (VC) firms do not usually 【C1】______ money from small investors. And some entrepreneurs complain that it is hard to get 【C2】______ the hotshots in the VC industry. 【C3】______ the enthusiasm for crowd-funding, 【C4】______ small investors can buy a stake in startup companies. Seedrs, a British crowd-funding firm, was 【C5】______ in 2012, and has backed 500 firms 【C6】______, raising a total of ￡210m ($271m) from more than 200,000 users. 【C7】______ there are two big problems with crowd-funding. First, it is risky: most startups fail. Second, investments tend to be 【C8】______— shareholders have to wait for a takeover or a stockmarket flotation to recoup their investment. Seedrs is trying to solve the illiquidity problem 【C9】______ setting up a secondary market, where buyers and sellers can 【C10】______ shares. The new market will start 【C11】______ this summer, and will allow trading for a week every month, starting on the first Tuesday. The price 【C12】______ which investors can deal will be set by Seedrs itself, 【C13】______ a valuation mechanism 【C14】______ industry guidelines. But there are some 【C15】______: only current investors in a firm will be allowed to buy shares. And, 【C16】______ the extent that investors make a profit on a sale, Seedrs takes a 7.5% cut of the gains. Crowd-funding might be even more attractive 【C17】______ investors could at a click assemble a diversified portfolio of small stakes in 20-30 companies 【C18】______ just one—just as those who put money into peer-to-peer lending can spread their risk 【C19】______ a range of borrowers. The next 【C20】______ will be to build on early efforts to offer the same to investors in shares: i.e., mutual funds for crowd-funded startups.

BSection III Writing/B

The horse and carriage is thing of the past. But love and marriage are still with us and still closely interrelated. Most American marriages, particularly first marriages【C1】______young couples are the result of【C2】______ attraction and affection【C3】______ than practical considerations. In the United States, parents do not arrange marriages for their children. Teenagers begin【C4】______in high school and usually find mates through their own academic and social【C5】______. Though young people feel【C6】______ to choose their friends from【C7】______groups, most choose a mate of similar background. This is【C8】______in part to parental guidance. Parents cannot select spouses for their children, but they can usually【C9】______choices by【C10】______ disapproval of someone they consider unsuitable. 【C11】______, marriages between members of different groups (interclass, interfaith, and interracial marriages) are increasing, probably because of the greater【C12】______of today"s youth and the fact that they are restricted by【C13】______prejudices than their parents. Many young people leave their home towns to attend college,【C14】______in the armed forces,【C15】______pursue a career in a bigger city. Once away from home and family, they are more【C16】______to date and marry outside their own social group. In mobile American society, interclass marriages are neither【C17】______nor shocking. Interfaith marriages are【C18】______the rise particularly between Protestants and Catholics. On the other hand, interracial marriage is still very uncommon. It can be difficult for interracial couples to find a place to live, maintain friendships, and【C19】______a family. Marriages between people of different national【C20】______(but the same race and religion) have been commonplace here since colonial times.

[A]Nodisciplineshaveseizedonprofessionalismwithasmuchenthusiasmasthehumanities.Youcan,MrMenandpointsout,becamealawyerinthreeyearsandamedicaldoctorinfour.Buttheregulartimeittakestogetadoctoraldegreeinthehumanitiesisnineyears.Notsurprisingly,uptohalfofalldoctoralstudentsinEnglishdropoutbeforegettingtheirdegrees.[B]Hisconcernismainlywiththehumanities:literature,languages,philosophyandsoon.Thesearedisciplinesthataregoingoutofstyle:22%ofAmericancollegegraduatesnowmajorinbusinesscomparedwithonly2%inhistoryand4%inEnglish.However,manyleadingAmericanuniversitieswanttheirundergraduatestohaveagroundinginthebasiccanonofideasthateveryeducatedpersonshouldpossess.Butmostfinditdifficulttoagreeonwhata"generaleducation"shouldlooklike.AtHarvard,MrMenandnotes,"thegreatbooksarereadbecausetheyhavebeenread"—theyformasortofsocialglue.[C]Equallyunsurprisingly,onlyabouthalfendupwithprofessorshipsforwhichtheyenteredgraduateschool.Therearesimplytoofewposts.ThisispartlybecauseuniversitiescontinuetoproduceevermorePhDs.Butfewerstudentswanttostudyhumanitiessubjects:Englishdepartmentsawardedmorebachelor"sdegreesin1970-71thantheydid20yearslater.Fewerstudentsrequirefewerteachers.So,attheendofadecadeoftheses-writing,manyhumanitiesstudentsleavetheprofessiontodosomethingforwhichtheyhavenotbeentrained.[D]OnereasonwhyitishardtodesignandteachsuchcoursesisthattheycancutacrosstheinsistencebytopAmericanuniversitiesthatliberal-artseducationsandprofessionaleducationshouldbekeptseparate,taughtindifferentschools.Manystudentsexperiencebothvarieties.AlthoughmorethanhalfofHarvardundergraduatesendupinlaw,medicineorbusiness,fixturedoctorsandlawyersmuststudyanon-specialistliberal-artsdegreebeforeembarkingonaprofessionalqualification.[E]Besidesprofessionalizingtheprofessionsbythisseparation,topAmericanuniversitieshaveprofessionalizedtheprofessor.Thegrowthinpublicmoneyforacademicresearchhasspeededtheprocess:federalresearchgrantsrosefourfoldbetween1960and1990,butfacultyteachinghoursfellbyhalfasresearchtookitstoll.Professionalismhasturnedtheacquisitionofadoctoraldegreeintoaprerequisiteforasuccessfulacademiccareer:aslateas1969athirdofAmericanprofessorsdidnotpossessone.Butthekeyideabehindprofessionalization,arguesMrMenand,isthat"theknowledgeandskillsneededforaparticularspecializationaretransmissiblebutnottransferable."Sodisciplinesacquireamonopolynotjustovertheproductionofknowledge,butalsoovertheproductionoftheproducersofknowledge.[F]Thekeytoreforminghighereducation,concludesMrMenand,istoalterthewayinwhich"theproducersofknowledgeareproduced."Otherwise,academicswillcontinuetothinkdangerouslyalike,increasinglydetachedfromthesocietieswhichtheystudy,investigateandcriticize."Academicinquiry,atleastinsomefields,mayneedtobecomelessexclusionaryandmoreholistic."Yetquitehowthathappens,MrMenanddoesnotsay.[G]ThesubtleandintelligentlittlebookTheMarketplaceofIdeas:ReformandResistanceintheAmericanUniversityshouldbereadbyeverystudentthinkingofapplyingtotakeadoctoraldegree.Theymaythendecidetogoelsewhere.ForsomethingcurioushasbeenhappeninginAmericanUniversities,andLouisMenand,aprofessorofEnglishatHarvardUniversity,captureditskillfully.Order:

Write a poster to your schoolmates, informing them of a new book to be released. You should write about 100 words and do not sign your own name at the end of the letter; use "Li Ming" instead. Do not write the address.

Radiation occurs from three natural sources, radioactive material in the environment, such as in soil, rock, or building materials; cosmic rays; and substances in the human body, such as radioactive potassium in bone and radioactive carbon in tissues. These natural sources account for an exposure of about 100 million a year for the average American. The largest single source of man-made radiation in medical X-rays, yet most scientists agree that hazards from this source are not as great as those from weapons-test fallout, since strontium-90 and carbon-14 become incorporated into the body, hence delivering radiation for an entire lifetime. (46) The issue is, however, by no means uncontroversial; indeed, the last two decades have witnessed intensified examination and dispute about the effects of low-level radiation. A survey conducted in Britain confirmed that an abnormally high percentage of patients suffering from arthritis of the spine who had been treated with X-rays contracted cancer. Another study revealed a high incidence of childhood cancer in cases where the mother had been given X-rays. (47) These studies have pointed to the need to reexamine the assumption that exposure to low linear energy transfer presented only a minor risk. Recently, examination of the death certificates of former employees of a West Coast plant which produces plutonium for nuclear weapons revealed markedly higher rates for cancers of the pancreas, lung, bone marrow and lymph systems than would have been expected in a normal population. (48) While the National Academy of Sciences committee attributes these differences to chemical or other environmental causes, rather than radiation, other scientists maintain that any radiation exposure, no matter how small, leads to an increase in cancer risk. (49) It is believed by some that a dose of one rem, if sustained over many generations, would lead to an increase of one percent in the number of 1,000 disorders per million births. In the meantime, regulatory efforts have been disorganized, fragmented, and inconsistent, characterized by internecine strife and bureaucratic delays. A Senate report concluded that coordination of regulation among involved departments and agencies was not possible because of jurisdictional disputes and confusion. (50) One Federal agency has been unsuccessful in its efforts to obtain sufficient funding and manpower for the enforcement of existing radiation laws, and the chairperson of a panel especially created to develop a coordinated Federal program has resigned.

The Pakistani president, Gen. Pervez Musharraf, announced here today that a delegation of Pakistani officials would fly to the Taliban"s headquarters in the southern Afghan city of Kandahar Monday to renew demands that the militia surrender Saudi fugitive Osama Bin Laden. U.S. officials have named Bin Laden, who has been given shelter by the Taliban rulers in Afghanistan, as the prime suspect in Tuesday"s terrorist attacks in Washington and New York. "We are aware of the gravity of the situation and know that in the lives of nations, such situations do arise that require making important decisions", Musharraf said at a meeting with Pakistani newspaper editors. The Taliban"s leader, Mohammad Omar, has refused to give up Bin Laden, claiming he is not responsible for the U.S. attacks. "The Pakistan government is leaning on the Taliban government to hand over Osama to save this entire region from catastrophe", said Najam Sethi, editor of the weekly newspaper Friday Times, who participated in the meeting with Musharraf. "I am not sure whether there is much chance of that happening, but the pressure is on from the Pakistan government". Pakistan has been a key supporter of the Taliban, which controls more than 90 percent of Afghanistan and has enforced a strict interpretation of Islamic law in the country. Omar, the Taliban leader, today convened an emergency meeting of clerics(圣职人员) in the Afghan capital, Kabul. "As regards the possible attack by America on the sacred soil of Afghanistan, veteran honorable clerics should come to Kabul for a sharia decision", Omar said in a statement broadcast on the Taliban"s Radio Shariat today. Sharia is Islamic law. Omar, who reportedly left Ms. Kandahar headquarters several days ago in anticipation of a U.S. attack, asked Afghans to pray and read the Koran to meet what he called a "test", according to the statement. He indicated he would not attend the meeting of clerics, though he reportedly met with a small group of senior clerics today. The Pakistan-based Afghan Islamic Press reported today it had received a statement from Bin Laden, dispatched by an aide from an undisclosed location in Afghanistan, in which he denied involvement in last week"s attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. "I am residing in Afghanistan", the statement said, "I have taken an oath of allegiance to Omar which does not allow me to do such things from Afghanistan. We have been blamed in the past, but we were not involved".

Competition and Cooperation

Picture-taking is a technique both for reflecting the objective world and for expressing the singular self. Photographs depict objective realities that already exist, though only the camera can disclose them. And they depict an individual photographer's temperament, discovering itself through the camera's cropping of reality.【F1】 That is, photography has two directly opposite ideals: in the first, photography is about the world and the photographer is a mere observer who counts for little; but in the second, photography is the instrument of fearlessness, questing subjectivity and the photographer is all. 【F2】 These conflicting ideals arise from uneasiness on the part of both photographers and viewers of photographs toward the aggressive component in "taking" a picture. Accordingly, the ideal of a photographer as observer is attracting because it implicitly denies that picture-taking is an aggressive act. The issue, of course, is not so clear-cut. What photographers do cannot be characterized as simply predatory or as simply, and essentially, benevolent. As a consequence, one ideal of picture-taking or the other is always being rediscovered and championed. An important result of the coexistence of these two ideals is a recurrent ambivalence toward photography' s means.【F3】 Whatever are the claims that photography might make to be a form of personal expression just like painting, its originality is closely linked to the power of a machine. The steady growth of these powers has made possible the extraordinary informativeness and imaginative formal beauty of many photographs, like Harold Edgerton's high-speed photographs of a bullet hitting its target or of the swirls and eddies of a tennis stroke.【F4】 But as cameras become more sophisticated, more automated, some photographers are tempted to disarm themselves or to suggest that they are not really armed, preferring to submit themselves to the limit imposed by pre-modern camera technology because a cruder, less high-powered machine is thought to give more interesting or emotive results, to leave more room for creative accident. For example, it has been virtually a point of honor for many photographers, including Walker Evans and Cartier Bresson, to refuse to use modern equipment. These photographers have come to doubt the value of the camera as an instrument of "fast seeing". Cartier Bresson, in fact, claims that the modern camera may see too fast. This ambivalence toward photographic means determines trends in taste. The cult of the future(of faster and faster seeing)alternates over time with the wish to return to a purer past when images had a handmade quality.【F5】 This longing for some primitive state of the photographic enterprise is currently widespread and underlies the present-day enthusiasm for daguerreotypes and the work of forgotten nineteenth-century provincial photographers. Photographers and viewers of photographs, it seems, need periodically to resist their own knowingness.