完形填空 The Inuit see polar bears as a valuable source of food, warmth and money in a part of the world where all three are in short supply. 1 to animal-welfare and green groups in warmer places the polar bears are both a (n) 2 in the fight against climate change and an animal under threat of 3 . The melting of the Arctic's ice cap means the population will 4 sharply, they say. They want international trade in bear pelts and parts, already 5 restricted, completely banned. These 6 views are set to at a meeting of the 7 on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), an intergovernmental agreement, in Bangkok. Having failed at the 8 meeting of CITES in 2010, the United States is again leading a 9 to ban trade in polar bear products in all but ' 10 ' circumstances. The debate promises to be 11 . What it lacks are facts. The Americans 12 that only 8 of the 19 known groups of polar bears have been surveyed since 2000. Of the 13 11, four have never been surveyed. Should the United States obtain the two-thirds 14 needed to change the bear's status, it would be a 15 to the Inuit. Their trade in walrus tusks and narwhal horns has dried up because of curbs 16 sales of ivory designed largely to protect elephants. The trade in seal pelts and meat was 17 by a 2009 import ban by the European Union, 18 this granted a limited exemption to native peoples. The Inuit argue that if the problem is climate change, to ban trade in polar bears is to attack the symptom 19 the cause. But the MEPs (欧盟会员) still voted 20 the American position.

完形填空WhilecoalproductionandusedroppedsignificantlyinAmerica,inEurope'wehavesomekindofgoldenageofcoal,'saysAnne-SophieCorbeauoftheInternationalEnergyAgency.Theamountofelectricity1fromcoalisrisingatanannual2of50%insomeEuropeancountries.Sincecoalisthe3pollutingsourceofelectricity,withmoregreenhousegasproducedperKWH(千瓦时)thananyotherfossilfuel,thisis4toEuropeanenvironmentalaspirations.5didithappen?AsAmericanutilities6intogas,Americancoalminershadto7fornewmarkets.ThishappenedwhenslowingChinesedemandwaspushingdownworldcoalprices,whichmakeEuropeanutilities8buyers.Comparedwiththerock-bottompriceofgasinAmerica,coalisnot9thatcheap.Butitisa10comparedwiththegaspriceinEurope.11gascanbecartedaroundinliquidform,thatisexpensiveandtheinfrastructurerequiredisstillpatchy;forthemostpart,gasisshiftedthroughpipelines,andtendstobeused12towhereitoriginates.So13coalhasworld-marketprices,gashasregionalprices,often14inonewayoranothertotheoilprice.ManyEuropeangascontractswere15yearsagowiththeRussiangasgiant,Gazprom,andgaspriceshave16high.Gazpromhassaiditwillcutprices,butthatmaymakelittledifference.SocoalischeaperthangasinEuropeandis17toremainso,partlybecauseEurope'sdomesticgasindustryismanyyears18America'sandpartlybecauseitwilltaketimeforEuropetobuildaninfrastructuretoimport19naturalgasinlargeamounts.PowerutilitiesinGermanywereset,20,tolose11.70whentheyburnedgastomakeaMW(兆瓦特)ofelectricity,buttoearn14.22perMWwhentheyburnedcoal.

完形填空Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle viewed laughter as “a bodily exercise precious to health。” But ---__1___some claims to the contrary, laughing probably has little influence on physical fitness Laughter does __2___short-term changes in the function of the heart and its blood vessels, ___3_ heart rate and oxygen consumption But because hard laughter is difficult to __4__, a good laugh is unlikely to have __5___ benefits the way, say, walking or jogging does。 　　__6__, instead of straining muscles to build them, as exercise does, laughter apparently accomplishes the __7__, studies dating back to the 1930’s indicate that laughter__8___ muscles, decreasing muscle tone for up to 45 minutes after the laugh dies down。 　　Such bodily reaction might conceivably help _9__the effects of psychological stress. Anyway, the act of laughing probably does produce other types of ___10___ feedback, that improve an individual’s emotional state. __11____one classical theory of emotion, our feelings are partially rooted ____12___ physical reactions. It was argued at the end of the 19th century that humans do not cry ___13___they are sad but they become sad when the tears begin to flow。 　　Although sadness also ____14___ tears, evidence suggests that emotions can flow __15___ muscular responses. In an experiment published in 1988,social psychologist Fritz Strack of the University of würzburg in Germany asked volunteers to __16___ a pen either with their teeth-thereby creating an artificial smile – or with their lips, which would produce a(n) __17___ expression. Those forced to exercise their enthusiastically to funny catoons than did those whose months were contracted in a frown, ____19___ that expressions may influence emotions rather than just the other way around __20__ , the physical act of laughter could improve mood。

完形填空 The major task facing adolescents is to create a stable identity. There are some developmental tasks that enable them to create an identity. It's important to accept one's physique. The beginning of puberty and the rate of body changes for adolescent varies tremendously. How easily adolescents deal with those changes will 1 reflect how closely their bodies match the well-defined 2 of the 'perfect' body for young women and young men. Adolescents who do not match it may need 3 support from adults to improve their feelings of comfort and self-worth regarding their physique. Try to achieve emotional independence from parents. Children derive strength from 4 their parents' values and attitudes. Adolescents, 5 , must redefine their 6 of personal strength and move toward self-reliance. This change is 7 if the adolescent and parents can agree on some level of 8 that increases over time. 9 , parents and adolescents should set a time by which children must be back home. That time should be increased 10 the adolescent matures. Prepare for an economic career. In our society, an adolescent 11 adult status when he or she is able to 12 support himself or herself. This task has become more 13 than in the past because the job market demands increased education and skills. Today, this developmental task is generally not achieved 14 late adolescence or early adulthood, after the individual completes her/his education and gains some entry level work experience. Adolescents can think abstractly and about possible situations. With these 15 in thinking, the adolescent is able to develop his or her own 16 of values and beliefs. Thus, it is essential to take an ideology as a guide to behavior. The family is where children define themselves and their world. Adolescents 17 themselves and their world from their new social roles. Status 18 the community, beyond that of family is an important achievement for older adolescents and young adults. Adolescents and young adults become members of the larger community 19 employment (financial independence) and 20 independence from parents.

完形填空 The social sciences are flourishing. As of 2005, there were almost half a million professional social scientists from all fields in the world, working both inside and outside academia. According to the World Social Science Report 2010, the number of social-science students worldwide has swollen by about 11%every year since 2000. Yet this enormous resource is not contributing enough to today's global challenges, including climate change, security, sustainable development and health. 41 .Humanity has the necessary agro-technological tools to eradicate hunger, from genetically engineered crops to artificial fertilizers. Here, too, the problems are social: the organization and distribution of food, wealth and prosperity. 42 . This is a shame—the community should be grasping the opportunity to raise its influence in the real world. To paraphrase the great social scientist Joseph Schumpeter: there is no radical innovation without creative destruction. Today, the social sciences are largely focused on disciplinary problems and internal scholarly debates, rather than on topics with external impact. Analyses reveal that the number of papers including the keywords 'environmental change' or'climate change' have increased rapidly since 2004. 43 . When social scientists do tackle practical issues, their scope is often local: Belgium is interested mainly in the effects of poverty on Belgium, for example. And whether the community's work contributes much to an overall accumulation of knowledge is doubtful. The problem is not necessarily the amount of available funding. 44 .This is an adequate amount so long as it is aimed in the right direction. Social scientists who complain about a lack of funding should not expect more in today's economic climate. The trick is to direct these funds better. The European Union Framework funding programs have long had a category specifically targeted at social scientists. This year, it was proposed that system be changed: Horizon 2020, a new program to be enacted in 2014, would not have such a category. This has resulted in protests from social scientists. But the intention is not to neglect social science; rather, the complete opposite. 45 . That should create more collaborative endeavors and help to develop projects aimed directly at solving global problems. A. It could be that we are evolving two communities of social scientists: one that is discipline-oriented and publishing in highly specialized journals, and one that is problem-oriented and publishing elsewhere, such as policy briefs. B. However, the numbers are still small: in 2010, about 1,600 of the 100,000 social-sciences papers published globally included one of these keywords. C. The idea is to force social scientists to integrate their work with other categories, including health and demographic change; food security; marine research and the bio-economy; clear, efficient energy; and inclusive, innovative and secure societies. D. The solution is to change the mindset of the academic community, and what it considers to be its main goal. Global challenges and social innovation ought to receive much more attention from scientists, especially the young ones. E. These issues all have root causes in human behavior: all require behavioral change and social innovations, as well as technological development. Stemming climate change, for example, is as much about changing consumption patterns and promoting tax acceptance as it is about developing clean energy. F. Despite these factors, many social scientists seem reluctant to tackle such problems. And in Europe, some are up in arms over a proposal to drop a specific funding category for social-science research and to integrate it within cross-cutting topics of sustainable development. G. During the late 1990s, national spending on social sciences and the humanities as a percentage of all research and development funds—including government, higher education, non-profit and corporate—varied from around 4% to 25%; in most European nations, it is about 15%.

完形填空Asmanypeoplehitmiddleage,theyoftenstarttonoticethattheirmemoryandmentalclarityarenotwhattheyusedtobe.Wesuddenlycantremember1weputthekeysjustamomentago,oranoldacquaintancesname,orthenameofanoldbandweusedtolove.Asthebrain2,werefertotheseoccurrencesasseniormoments.3seeminglyinnocent,thislossofmentalfocuscanpotentiallyhavea(an)4impactonourprofessional,social,andpersonal5.Neuroscientists,expertswhostudythenervoussystem,areincreasinglyshowingthattheresactuallyalotthatcanbedone.It6outthatthebrainneedsexerciseinmuchthesamewayourmusclesdo,andtherightmental7cansignificantlyimproveourbasiccognitive8.Thinkingisessentiallya9ofmakingconnectionsinthebrain.Toacertainextent,ourabilityto10inmakingtheconnectionsthatdriveintelligenceisinherited.11,becausetheseconnectionsaremadethrougheffortandpractice,scientistsbelievethatintelligencecanexpandandfluctuate12mentaleffort.Now,anewWeb-basedcompanyhastakenitastep13anddevelopedthefirstbraintrainingprogramdesignedtoactuallyhelppeopleimproveandregaintheirmental14.TheWeb-basedprogram15youtosystematicallyimproveyourmemoryandattentionskills.Theprogramkeeps16ofyourprogressandprovidesdetailedfeedback17yourperformanceandimprovement.Mostimportantly,it18modifiesandenhancesthegamesyouplayto19onthestrengthsyouaredeveloping--muchlikea(n)20exerciseroutinerequiresyoutoincreaseresistanceandvaryyourmuscleuse.

完形填空 41 But traffic experts say building more roads is a quick-fix solution that will not alleviate the traffic problem in the long run. Soaring land costs, increasing concern over social and environmental disruptions caused by road building, and the likelihood that more roads can only lead to more cars and traffic are powerful factors bearing down on a 1950s-style construction program. 42 Proponents of this advanced technology say electronic detection systems, closed-circuit television, radio communication, ramp metering, variable message singing, and other smart-highway technology can now be used at a reasonable cost to improve communication between drivers and the people who monitor traffic. Pathfinder, a Santa Monica, California-based smart-highway project in which a 14-mile stretch of the Santa Monica Freeway, making up what is called a 'smart corridor', is being instrumented with buried loops in the pavement. Closed circuit television cameras survey the flow of traffic, while communications linked to properly equipped automobiles advise motorists of the least congested routes or detours. 43 'Electronics on the highway addresses just one aspect of the Problem: how to regulate traffic more efficiently', explains Michael Rennet, senior researcher at the World watch Institute. 'It doesn't deal with the central problem of too many cars for roads that can't be built fast enough. It sends people the wrong message: They start thinking 'Yes, there used to be a traffic congestion problem, but that's been solved now because we have an advanced high-tech system in place. '' Larson agrees and adds, 44 Other traffic problem-solving options being studied and experimented with include car pooling, rapid mass-transit systems, staggered or flexible work hours, and road pricing, a system whereby motorists pay a certain amount for the time they use a highway. 45 A. Smart highways are just one of the tools that we will use to deal with our traffic problems. It's not the solution itself, just part of the package. There are different strategies. B. It seems that we need a new, major thrust to deal with the traffic problems of the next 20 years. There has to be a big change. C. It's taking advantage of the technology you use in your everyday lives and putting it to work on highways. D. Traffic statistics paint a gloomy picture. To help solve their traffic woes, some rapidly growing U.S. cities have simply built more roads. E. The goal of smart-highway technology is to make traffic systems work at optimum efficiency by treating the road and the vehicles traveling on them as an integral transportation system. F. Smart highways that will allow a driver to program a destination on a dashboard computer, then sit back and enjoy the ride. G. Not all traffic experts, however, look to smart-highway technology as the ultimate solution to traffic gridlock. Some say the high-tech approach is limited and can only offer temporary solutions to a serious problem.

完形填空 The majority of people, about nine out of ten, are right-handed. 1 until recently, people who were left-handed were considered 2 , and once children showed this tendency they were forced to use their right hands. Today left-handedness is generally 3 , but it is still a disadvantage in a world 4 most people are right-handed. For example, most tools and implements are still 5 for right-handed people. In sports 6 contrast, doing things with the left hand or foot, is often an advantage. Throwing, kicking, punching or batting from the ' 7 ' side may result in throwing 8 many opponents who are more accustomed to dealing with the 9 of players who are right-handed. This is why, in many 10 at a professional level, a 11 proportion of players are left-handed than in the population as a whole. The word 'right' in many languages means 'correct' or is 12 with law- fulness, whereas the words associated 13 'left', such as 'sinister', generally have 14 associations. Moreover, among a number of primitive peoples, there is 15 close association between death and the left hand. In the past, in 16 Western societies, children were often forced to use their right hands, especially to write with. In some cases the left hand was 17 behind the child's back so that it could not be used. If, in the future, they are allowed to choose, 18 will certainly be more left-handers, and probably 19 people with minor psychological disturbances as a result of being forced to use their 20 hand.

完形填空 In less than 30 years'' time the Star Trek holodeck will be a reality. Direct links between the brain'' s nervous system and a computer will also create full sensory virtual environments, allowing virtual vacations like those in the film Total Recall. 71. There will be television chat shows hosted by robots, and cars with pollution monitors that will disable them when they offend. 72. Children will play with dolls equipped with personality chips, computers with in-built personalities will be regarded as workmates rather than tools, relaxation will be in front of smell-television,and digital age will have arrived. According to BT'' s futurologist, Ian Pearson, these are among the developments scheduled for the first few decades of the new millennium (a period of 1,000 years ), when supercomputers will dramatically accelerate progress in all areas of life. 73.Pearson has pieced together the work of hundreds of researchers around the world to produce a unique millennium technology calendar that gives the latest dates when we can expect hundreds or key breakthroughs and discoveries to take place. Some of the biggest developments will be in medicine, including an extended life expectancy and dozens of artificial organs coming into use between now and 2040. Pearson also predicts a breakthrough in computer-human links. "By linking directly to our nervous system, computers could pick up what we feel and, hopefully, simulate feeling too so that we can start to develop full sensory environments, rather like the holidays in Total Recall or the Star Trek holodeck," he says. 74. But that, Pearson points out, is only the start of man-machine integration: "It will be the beginning of the long process of integration that will ultimately lead to a fully electronic human before the end of the next century." Through his research, Pearson is able to put dates to most of the breakthroughs that can be predicted. However, there are still no forecasts for when faster-that-light travel will be available, or when human cloning will be perfected, or when time travel will be possible. But he does expect social problems as a result of technological advances. A boom in neighborhood surveillance cameras will, for example, cause problems in 2010, while the arrival of synthetic lifelike robots will mean people may not be able to distinguish between their human friends and the droids. 75. And home appliances will also become so smart that controlling and operating them will result in the breakout of a new psychological disorder--kitchen rage.

完形填空Justice in society must include both a fair trial to the accused and the selection of an appropriate punishment for those proven guilty. Because justice is regarded as one form of equality ,we find in its earlier expressions the idea of a punishment equal to the crime. Recorded in the Bible is the expression "an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." That is, the individual who has done wrong has committed an offense against society. 46 ) To make repayment for this offense ,society must get equally balanced, which can be done only imposing an equal injury upon him. 47) This conception of deserved-punishment justice is reflected in many parts of the legal codes and procedures of modern times, which is illustrated when we demand the death penalty for a person who has committed murder. This philosophy of punishment was supported by the German idealist Hegel, who believed that society owed it to the criminal to put into operation a punishment equal to the crime he had committed. 48) The criminal had by his own actions denied his true self and it is necessary to do something that will eliminate this denial and restore the self that has been denied. To the murderer nothing less than giving up his own life will pay his debt. The demand for the death penalty is a right the state owes the criminal and it should not deny him what he deserves. 　　Modern jurists have tried to replace deserved-punishment justice with the notion of corrective justice. The aim of the latter is not to abandon the concept of equality but to find a more adequate way to express it. It tries to preserve the idea of equal opportunity for each individual to realize the best that is in him. 49) The criminal is regarded as being socially ill and in need of treatment that will enable him to become a normal member of society. Before a treatment can be put into operation ,the cause of his antisocial behavior must be found. If the cause can be removed, provisions must be made to have this done. Only those criminals who are incurable should be permanently separated from the rest of society. This does not mean that criminals will escape punishment or be quickly returned to take up careers of crime. It means that justice is to heal the individual, not simply to get even with him. If severe punishment is the only adequate means for accomplishing this, it should be administered. 50) However, the individual should be given every opportunity to assume a normal place in society and his conviction of crime must not deprive him of the opportunity to make his way in the society of which he is a part.

完形填空 It is not easy to talk about the role of the mass media in this overwhelmingly significant phase in European history. History and news become confused, and one''s impressions tend to be a mixture of skepticism and optimism. (46)Television is one of the means by which these feelings are created and conveyed--and perhaps never before has it served so much to connect different peoples and nations as in the recent events in Europe. The Europe that is now forming cannot be anything other than its peoples, their cultures and national identifies. With this in mind we can begin to analyze the European television scene. (47)In Europe. as elsewhere, multi -media groups have been increasingly successful: groups which bring together television, radio, newspapers, magazines and publishing houses that work in relation to one another. One Italian example would be the Berlusconi group, while abroad Maxwell and Murdoch come to mind. Clearly, only the biggest and most flexible television companies are going to be able to compete in such a rich and hotly -contested market. (48)This alone demonstrates that the television business is not an easy world to survive in. a fact underlined by statistics that show that out of eighty European television networks, no less than 50% took a loss in 1989. Moreover, the integration of the European community will oblige television companies to cooperate more closely in terms of both production and distribution. (49) Creating a "European identity" that respects the different cultures and traditions which go to make up the connecting fabric of the Old Continent is no easy task and demands a strategic choice― that of producing programs in Europe for Europe. This entails reducing our dependence on the North American market, whose programs relate to experiences and cultural traditions which are different from our own In order to achieve these objectives, we must concentrate more on co -productions, the exchange of news, documentary services and training. This also involves the agreements between European countries for the creation of a European bank for Television Production which, on the model of the European Investments Bank, will handle the finances necessary for production costs. (50) In dealing with a challenge on such a scale, it is no exaggeration to say. "United we stand, divided we fall"― and if I had to choose a slogan it would be "Unity in our diversity," A unity of objectives that nonetheless respect the varied peculiarities of each country.

完形填空Context matters when assessing a culture's strategic effectiveness. Leaders must simultaneously consider culture styles and key organizational and market conditions if they want their culture to help drive performance. Region and industry are among the most germane external factors to keep in mind; critical internal considerations include alignment with strategy, leadership, and organizational design. The values of the national and regional cultures in which a company is embedded can influence patterns of behaviour within the organization. 41 Companies operating in countries with low levels of uncertainty avoidance, such as the United States and Australia, place a greater emphasis on learning, purpose, and enjoyment. Such external influences are important considerations when working across borders or designing an appropriate organizational culture. Varying cultural attributes may be needed to address industry-specific regulations and customer needs. 42 Organizational cultures in financial services are more likely to emphasize safety. 43 In contrast, nonprofits are far more purpose-driven, which can reinforce their commitment to a mission by aligning employee behaviour around a common goal. Strategic considerations related to a company's life cycle are also linked to organizational culture. Companies with a strategy that seeks to stabilize or maintain their market position prioritize learning, whereas organizations operating with a turnaround strategy tend to prioritize order and safety in their efforts to redirect or reorganize unprofitable units. It is hard to overestimate the importance of aligning culture and leadership. The character and behaviours of a CEO and top executives can have a profound effect on culture. Conversely, culture serves to either constrain or enhance the performance of leaders. 44 For individual leaders, cultural fit is as important as capabilities and experience. We see a two-way relationship between a company's culture and its particular structure. In many cases, structure and systems follow culture. 45 However, a long-standing organizational design choice can lead to the formation of a culture. Because the latter is far more difficult to alter, we suggest that structural changes should be aligned with the desired culture. A. For example, we find differences between companies that adopt a differentiation strategy and companies that pursue a cost leadership strategy. B. We find, for example, that companies operating in countries characterized by a high degree of institutional collectivism, such as France and Brazil, have cultures that emphasize order and safety. C. For example, companies that prioritize teamwork and collaboration might design incentive systems that include shared team and company goals along with rewards that recognize collective effort. D. A comparison of organizations across industries reveals evidence that cultures might adapt to meet the demands of industry environments. E. Although results and caring are key cultural characteristics at both types of companies, enjoyment, learning, and purpose are more suited to differentiation, whereas order and authority are more suited to cost leadership. F. Given the increasingly complex regulations enacted in response to the financial crisis, careful work and risk management are more critical than ever in this industry. G. Our own data from executive recruiting activities shows that a lack of cultural fit is responsible for up to 68% of new-hire failures at the senior leadership level.

完形填空Do animals have rights

完形填空 Kids are missing out on having important conversations with parents about how to love and be loved. Parents are worried for years 1 having 'the talk' with their kids. That talk, of course, is about sex. But one thing that is getting very lost in those 2 is how to have a healthy romantic 3 . It's not enough to have the sex talk, we have to have the 4 talk, too. Without it, we 5 our kids being in abusive, manipulative relationships, or 6 out on a truly wonderful aspect of life. According to a report 7 today by Harvard Graduate School of Education's Making Caring Common Project, 8 worry a great deal about the hookup culture, but ignore the fact that young people are unprepared to learn how to love and develop 9 , healthy romantic relationships. 'This whole area has been terribly 10 ,' says Richard Weissbourd, a Harvard psychologist who 11 the Making Caring Common Project. Without conversations about 12 relationships, parents are also neglecting to teach their children about misogyny (厌恶女性) 13 sexual harassment. 'Adults seem not to be facing it 14 It's concerning,' Weissbourd adds. 15 parents think kids don't want to hear it from them, they should 16 : 70 percent of the 18-to 25-year-olds 17 responded to the report's survey said they wanted more information from parents about some emotional 18 of a romantic relationship. And 65 percent said they wanted 19 about it in a sexed or health class at school. But both parents and educators seem to 20 avoidance of having sex, how not to get pregnant or how to avoid a sexually transmitted disease. In doing so, parents are missing out on having important conversations about how to love and be loved.

完形填空 Alcohol use is the number one drug problem among young people. It's easy to understand why. For adults, alcohol is legal, widely 1 in American culture and easily 2 . Many kids can get a drink right in their own homes. 3 are drinking younger and more frequently than 4 , often beginning around age 13, according to studies. The average number of alcoholic drinks among college students is five on a single 5 , according to a recent survey. Among those younger 21, it is 5.5 drinks, and among 6 21 and older, it is 4.2 drinks. Young people almost always begin drinking because of 7 pressure, in an attempt to be accepted and 8 in the group. According to the U.S. Surgeon General, more than half of junior and senior high school students drink alcoholic 9 . More than 40 percent of those who drink admit to drinking when upset, 31 percent admit to drinking 10 , 25 percent admit to drinking when 11 and 25 percent admit to drinking to get ' 12 .' This is a 13 , serious problem 14 college campuses today. In 1997 Harvard University's School of Public Health surveyed students at 130 colleges for a college 15 study and found about two of every five college students 16 in binge drinking. 17 binge drinkers at college were 22 times more 18 than non-binge drinkers to have problems, 19 missed classes, falling behind in school work, getting in trouble or hurt and engaging in 20 sexual activity.

完形填空　　71．While there are almost as many definitions of history as there are historians, modern practice most closely conforms to one that sees history as the attempt to recreate and explain the significant events of the past. Caught in the web of its own time and place, each generation of historians determines anew what is significant for it in the past. In this search the evidence found is always incomplete and scattered, it is also frequently partial or partisan. The irony of the historian''s craft is that its ractitioners always know that their efforts are but contributions to an unending process. 　　72．Interest in historical methods has arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves. While history once revered its affinity to literature and philosophy, the emerging social sciences seemed to afford greater opportunities for asking new questions and providing rewarding approaches to an understanding of the past. Social science methodologies had to be adapted to a discipline governed by the primacy of historical sources rather than the imperatives of the contemporary world. 　　73．During this transfer, traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies designed to interpret the new forms of evidence in the historical study. 　　Methodology is a term that remains inherently ambiguous in the historical profession. 74．There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry. Historians, especially those so blinded by their research interests that they have been accused of "tunnel method," frequently fall victim to the "technicist fallacy." Also common in the natural sciences, the technicist fallacy mistakenly identifies the discipline as a whole with certain parts of its technical implementation. 75．It applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who equate their activity with specific techniques.

完形填空A large proportion of the studies of behavior used animals as subjects, especially pigeons, rats, and rabbits. There are a number of reasons why researchers in this field frequently choose to conduct their experiments with nonhuman subjects. First of all, the possibility of a placebo effect is minimized with animal subjects. 46)Whereas a human subject''s behavior may be drastically altered by the knowledge that he or she is being observed, this is unlikely with animal subjects because most studies with animal subjects are conducted in such a way that the animal does not know its behavior is being monitored and recorded. Furthermore, it is unlikely that an animal subject will be motivated either to please or displease the experimenter, a motive that can ruin a study with human subjects. A second reason for using animal subjects is convenience. The species most commonly used as subjects are easy and inexpensive to care for, and animals of a specific age and sex can be obtained in any quantities the experimenter needs. 47)Once animal subjects are obtained, their participation is as regular as the experimenter''s--animal subjects never fail to show up for their appointments, which is unfortunately not the case with human subjects. 　　48) Probably the biggest advantage of domesticated animal subjects is that their environment can be controlled to a much greater extent than is possible with either wild animals or human subjects. This is especially important in experiments on learning, where previous experience can have a large effect on a subject''s performance in a new learning situation. Likewise, if a human subject tries to solve some mystery as part of a learning experiment, the experimenter cannot be sure how many similar problems the subject has encountered in his lifetime. 49) When animals are bred and raised in the laboratory, however, their environments can be constructed to make sure that they have no contact with objects or events similar to those they will encounter in the experiment. 　　A final reason for using animal subjects is that of comparative simplicity. 50)Just as a child trying to learn electricity is better off starting with a flashlight than a radio, researchers may have a better chance of discovering the basic principles of learning by examining creatures that are less intelligent and less complex than human beings The assumption here is that although human beings differ from other animals in some respects, they are also similar in some respects, and it is these commonalities that can be investigated with animal subjects.

完形填空C.P. Snow once said: 'A sense of the future is behind all good policies. Unless we have it, we can give nothing either wise or decent to the world.' Thinking carefully about an outcome is an intelligent first step in many processes, especially when the stakes are high, possibly even dangerous. Do you have any experience in getting out of hazardous situations? In the most exceptional circumstances, a few good rules of thumb may save you. Here are five things to keep in mind. 41 Stay calm If a catastrophe threatens your life, panic will only make matters worse. Nothing but calmness can help you adequately take stock of the situation and take appropriate measures. 42 Remain confident Desperation can paralyze you or sap your energy, while confidence is the key to saving yourself. 43 Help each other You should organize for mutual assistance in case of an earthquake, flood, fire, etc. People working together can always cope more successfully with any adverse situation. Solidarity means strength; solidarity means victory. 44 Be obedient to superiors The best strategy when facing a catastrophe is to obey commands and keep order. More often than not, leaders are experts, or someone familiar with the situation or with rich experience. Being too individualistic and going your own way will usually make the situation worse for you and others. So, the best thing to do is to listen to authorities and remain orderly. 45 Communicate When in danger it is best to seek help immediately so those with more resources can come to your aid. If you are at risk, use whatever, means available as soon as possible to contact others for help, and take efforts to maintain communication once it is established. While every catastrophe is different in its own way, all can be met and hopefully overcome with the above-mentioned pieces of advice. By carefully considering what needs to be done, even under the worst of situations, one can find solutions, or endure until aided by others. A. A person trapped in ruins in an earthquake, didn't lose hope. The victim overcame his pain and despair, and kept banging out signals on the fallen wall around him for help. Because of his efforts, a rescue team was able to find him and save his life. B. For example, if numerous people are involved in a dangerous situation, some, out of fear or inclination, may not follow direction or heed sound advice. As a result of the disorder, rescue efforts are hindered, or worse more casualties are incurred. C. Nine fishermen from Peru were hit by a severe storm, but they didn't panic even though their boat was damaged so badly that they couldn't sail home. They maintained faith that they would surely to be saved, and their belief gave them strength. When there is hope, there is a way! They survived at sea for 40 days before they were finally rescued. Their story is a good sample for future people lost at sea. It is best to remember the proverb: God helps those who help themselves. D. History shows that when people are in danger mutual assistance promotes confidence, and reassuring others not only helps them, but can calm you as well. Helping others is beneficial, especially in the direst circumstances. During the Sept. 11 attacks in America, people pulled together and supported each other. This not only reduced casualties, but also left a deep impression on people around world. Remember, helping others is helping yourself. E. The Apollo 13 space mission suffered catastrophic mechanical problems en route to the Moon. Its malfunction was caused by an explosion and rupture of oxygen tank No. 2 in the service module. The NASA Mission Control Center immediately issued two orders. The second order was concerning navigation. But, can you guess what the first order was? Unbelievably, the astronauts were told to take two tranquillizer pills each! As a result, calmness helped the astronauts overcome a series of difficulties and return to earth. Calmness can work miracles in times of emergency. F. The best way to prevent a catastrophe from happening is planning ahead. You should often check your circuits, stoves, electrical appliances and gas pipelines. Before sleeping in a hotel, you should be aware of the nearest exit in case of an emergency. 'Preparation averts peril.'

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完形填空 There's fear of the number 13. It's a number just like any other, and yet there are 1 movies about it; some buildings 2 have no 13th floor and plenty of couples 3 getting married on the 13th of the month. The 4 name for fear of the number 13 is triskaidekaphobia, and 5 it is rare, about 9 to 10 percent of Americans are, at the very least, uneasy about the number 13. What 6 this number so scary? Well, there's no single reason 7 the widespread fear. Historians have pinpointed a few 8 reasons for 13's prevalence as an unlucky number. The most popular theory about the 9 of fear of the number 13 is biblical: there were 13 10 at the Last Supper. The 13th to arrive was Judas, who 11 Jesus. In Norse mythology, too, a table of 13 proved unlucky, to say the least. 12 one of the myths, the primary 12 gods were dining together peacefully 13 the god of mischief (and frequent superhero-movie villain) Loki showed up. As soon as this 13th guest arrived, chaos and holocaust happened. The superstition that a table of 13 diners 14 bad news even made its way into Harry Potter. On its own, there are no problems with the number itself. It's 13's proximity to the number 12 that makes it look bad, according to scientists and mathematicians. In many ancient cultures, 12 was 15 to be a perfect number. There are 12 hours on a clock, 12 months in a year, and 12 phases of the Zodiac. As the number immediately follows this 'perfect' one, 13 seemed 16 , inspiring unease 17 the ancient world. So factors from both myth and math have 18 to make this particular number more 19 than any other, inspiring fear of the number 13 in many. The uneasiness about the number, 20 to ancient times, has been compounded over the years to create a very real, modem fear.