[A]Somearchaeologicalsiteshavealwaysbeeneasilyobservable—forexample,theParthenoninAthens,Greece;thepyramidsofGizainEgypt;andthemegalithsofStonehengeinsouthernEngland.Butthesesitesareexceptionstothenorm.Mostarchaeologicalsiteshavebeenlocatedbymeansofcarefulsearching,whilemanyothershavebeendiscoveredbyaccident.OlduvaiGorge,anearlyhominidsiteinTanzania,wasfoundbyabutterflyhunterwholiterallyfellintoitsdeepvalleyin1911.ThousandsofAztecartifactscametolightduringthediggingoftheMexicoCitysubwayinthe1970s.[B]Inanothercase,AmericanarchaeologistsReneMillionandGeorgeCowgillspentyearssystematicallymappingtheentirecityofTeotihuacanintheValleyofMexiconearwhatisnowMexicoCityatitspeakaroundAD600,thiscitywasoneofthelargesthumansettlementsintheworld.Theresearchersmappednotonlythecity"svastandornateceremonialareas,butalsohundredsofsimplerapartmentcomplexeswherecommonpeoplelived.[C]Howdoarchaeologistsknowwheretofindwhattheyarelookingforwhenthereisnothingvisibleonthesurfaceoftheground?Typically,theysurveyandsample(maketestexcavationson)largeareasofterraintodeterminewhereexcavationwillyieldusefulinformation.Surveysandtestsampleshavealsobecomeimportantforunderstandingthelargerlandscapesthatcontainarchaeologicalsites.[D]Surveyscancoverasinglelargesettlementorentirelandscapes.Inonecase,manyresearchersworkingaroundtheancientMayacityofCopan,Honduras,havelocatedhundredsofsmallruralvillagesandindividualdwellingsbyusingaerialphotographsandbymakingsurveysonfoot.TheresultingsettlementmapsshowhowthedistributionanddensityoftheruralpopulationaroundthecitychangeddramaticallybetweenAD500and850,whenCopancollapsed.[E]Tofindtheirsites,archaeologiststodayrelyheavilyonsystematicsurveymethodsandavarietyofhigh-technologytoolsandtechniques.Airbornetechnologies,suchasdifferenttypesofradarandphotographicequipmentcarriedbyairplanesorspacecraft,allowarchaeologiststolearnaboutwhatliesbeneaththegroundwithoutdigging.Aerialsurveyslocategeneralareasofinterestorlargerburiedfeatures,suchasancientbuildingsorfields.[F]Mostarchaeologicalsites,however,arediscoveredbyarchaeologistswhohavesetouttolookforthem.Suchsearchescantakeyears.BritisharchaeologistHowardCarterknewthatthetomboftheEgyptianpharaohTutankhamumexistedfrominformationfoundinothersites.CartersiftedthroughrubbleintheValleyoftheKingsforsevenyearsbeforehelocatedthetombin1922.Inthelate1800sBritisharchaeologistSirArthurEvanscombedantiquedealers"storesinAthens,Greece.HewassearchingfortingengravedsealsattributedtotheancientMycenaeanculturethatdominatedGreecefromthe1400sto1200sBC.Evans"sinterpretationsofthoseengravingseventuallyledthemtofindtheMinoanpalaceatKnossos(Knosos),ontheislandofCrete,in1900.[G]Groundsurveysallowarchaeologiststopinpointtheplaceswheredigswillbesuccessful.Mostgroundsurveysinvolvealotofwalking,lookingforsurfacecluessuchassmallfragmentsofpottery.Theyoftenincludeacertainamountofdiggingtotestforburiedmaterialsatselectedpointsacrossalandscape.Archaeologistsalsomaylocateburiedremainsbyusingsuchtechnologiesasgroundradar,magnetic-fieldrecording,andmetaldetectors.Archaeologistscommonlyusecomputerstomapsitesandthelandscapesaroundsites.Twoandthree-dimensionalmapsarehelpfultoolsinplanningexcavations,illustratinghowsiteslook,andpresentingtheresultsofarchaeologicalresearch.Order:

BSection I Use of EnglishDirections: Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D./B

Undeniably, many Europeans arc suffering. Levels of unemployment are the highest since records began in France(3. 2 million)and Spain(6 million). Bad European news mounts almost daily. Europe is having a terrible time—except compared with probably every other continent and any time in history. Look at crisis stricken Spain, for instance. The average Spaniard now lives to 82, seven years longer than in 1980.(Most countries where people can expect to reach 82 are European, says the World Health Organization.)Today that average Spaniard"s income, despite years of crisis, is still nearly double what it was in 1980. And across Europe, daily life has tended to get gradually more pleasant. For instance, crime rates have kept falling in most western countries despite the crisis. British streets haven"t been this safe in more than 30 years, according to the UK"s Office of National Statistics. It"s important to realize that most people"s lives aren"t affected by the latest twist in the euro zone crisis. A good new breast-cancer drug often does more for collective happiness than a good new prime minister. And those gains get shared out most fairly in Europe. That"s why seven of the 10 best-rating countries on the World Economic Forum"s gender gap index are European. So are six of the top 10 least corrupt in Transparency International"s corruption perception index. And when the CIA ranked 136 countries for income equality, the 17 most equal were all European. No wonder Spain and even Greece outrank Qatar on the United Nations" human development index. Most emerging economies lag decades behind us: Russian, Brazilian and Chinese average incomes are still below half those in Greece, according to the World Bank. Nonetheless, the relative rise of new countries engenders paranoia. The American pundit Thomas Friedman often says China and India are "eating our lunch". But since the global economy isn"t a zero-sum game, it"s more accurate to say that the Chinese and Indians are making our lunch. The richer they get, the better they can afford our high-end engineering products, hotel rooms, luxury goods, universities, etc. It"s also notable how well European democracies have held up under five years of crisis. In 1981, when shots were fired in Spain"s parliament, that average Spaniard still worried about a fascist coup. Today every western European country is a secure democracy. Contrary to predictions, Europe"s far right hasn"t risen en masse during the crisis, notes the London-based research and advisory group Counterpoint. Nor has Western Europe experienced a big terrorist atrocity since 2005. Crucially, too, the next round of wars shouldn"t involve Europeans. If Iran, North Korea or Taiwan blows up, we won"t be there. We just don"t have the gunboats any more. Last year Asian defense spending exceeded Europe"s probably for the first time since Europeans began conquering the world 500 years ago. Defense experts bewail our impotence, but on the bright side, governments with strong armies always overestimate their ability to manage a war smoothly, and get lured into horrible adventures. That won"t happen to us. Moreover, given our lack of natural resources, other countries will probably leave us in peace. Sure, the 400 million western Europeans—just 6 per cent of the global population—won"t rule the world again, but then we don"t particularly want to.

For centuries in Spain and Latin America, heading home for lunch and a snooze with the family was some thing like a national right, but with global capitalism standardizing work hours, this idyllic habit is fast becoming an endangered pleasure. Ironically, all this is happening just as researchers are beginning to note the health benefits of the afternoon nap. According to a nationwide survey, less than 25 percent of Spaniards still enjoy siestas. And like Spain, much of Latin America has adopted Americanized work schedules, too, with shortened lunch times and more rigid work hours. Last year the Mexican government passed a law limiting lunch breaks to one hour and requiring its employees to work their eight-hour shift between 7 a.m. and 6 p.m.. Before the mandate , workers would break up the shift—going home midday for a long break with the family and returning to work until about 9 or 10 p.m.. The idea of siesta is changing in Greece, Italy and Portugal, too, as they rush to join their more "industrious" counterparts in the global market. Most Americans I know covet sleep, but the idea of taking a nap mid-afternoon equates with laziness, un employment and general sneakiness. Yet according to a National Sleep Survey poll, 65 percent of adults do not get enough sleep. Numerous scientific studies document the benefits of nap taking, including one 1997 study on the deleterious effects of sleep deprivation in the journal Internal Medicine . The researchers found that fatigue harms not only marital and social relations but worker productivity. According to Mark Rosekind, a former NASA scientist and founder of Solutions in Cupertino, Calif., which educates businesses about the advantages of sanctioning naps, we"re biologically programmed to get sleepy between 3 and 5 p.m. and 3 and 5 a.m.. Our internal timekeeper—called the circadian clock—operates on a 24-hour rotation and every 12 hours there" s a dip. In accordance with these natural sleep rhythms, Rosekind recommends that naps be either for 40 minutes or for two hours. Latin American countries, asserts Rosekind, have had it right all along. They"ve been in sync with their clocks; we haven"t. Since most of the world is sleep-deprived, getting well under the recommended eight hours a night(adults get an average of 6. 5 hours nightly), we usually operate on a kind of idle midday. Naps are even more useful now that most of us forfeit sleep because of insane work schedules, longer commute times and stress, In a study published last April, Brazilian medical researchers noted that blood pressure and arterial blood pressure dropped during a siesta.

For a society to exist, it must have a system of leadership. Some people will have to have power over others. As Max Weber pointed out, however, people can perceive power as legitimate or illegitimate. Weber used the term authority to refer to legitimate power that is, power that people accept as right. In contrast, illegitimate power, coercion, is power that people do not accept as just. 1. Custom and authority Throughout the world's history, the most common form of authority has been traditional. Traditional authority, which is based on custom, is the hallmark of preliterate groups. In these societies, custom dictates basic relationships. 2. Traditional gender difference Gender relations in preliterate groups are also based on traditional authority. The divisions between men and women are based on the past, with custom determining that a gulf should be maintained between them. Custom also dictates the specifics of their relationships. 3. Change of tradition When traditional society changes, traditional authority is undermined. 4. Tradition in modern society Even in industrial and postindustrial societies, however, traditional authority never totally dies out. 5. Challenges to tradition This traditional authority, unquestioned in most places in the world, has not gone completely challenged, however. Just as for the widow of Spain and Portugal, matters are no longer as clear-cut as they once were, and some Western societies debate the right of parents to hit their kids. Although the images that come to mind when we think of power are those of government—kings, queens, coups, dictatorships, running for office, voting—traditional authority, in the sense of power relations, is also an inevitable part of everyday life. [A]In a democracy, for example, the president's authority comes from the office, as specified in the written constitution, not from his or her reputation or personal characteristics. [B]A good case in point is Sweden: it has even passed laws that forbid spanking, and Sweden authorities arrest parents who lay a hand on their children. [C]For example, in small villages in southern Spain and in a large part of Portugal, widows are expected to wear only black until they remarry—which generally means that they wear black for the rest of their lives. The force of a tradition is so strong that if a widow were to violate the dress code, she would create a scandal. [D]Parental authority provides an excellent example. Parents exercise authority over their children because they have always had such authority. From generations past, we inherit the idea that parents are not only responsible for providing their children with food, shelter, and discipline, but also that they have the right to choose their children' s doctors and schools, and teach them religion and morality. [E]For example, because of birth a particular individual becomes the chief, king, or queen. As far as members of that society are concerned, this is the right way to determine a ruler because "that is the way it has always been done. " [F]As a society industrializes, for example, new perspectives on life open up, and no longer does traditional authority go unchallenged. Thus, in contemporary southern Spain and parts of Portugal, you can see old women dressed in black from head to toe, and you immediately know their marital status. Younger widows , however, are likely to be indistinguishable from other women.

As Gilbert White, Darwin, and others observed long ago, all species appear to have the innate capacity to increase their numbers from generation to generation.【F1】 The task for ecologists is to untangle the environmental and biological factors that hold this intrinsic capacity for population growth in check over the long run. The great variety of dynamic behaviors exhibited by different population makes this task more difficult: some populations remain roughly constant from year to year; others exhibit regular cycles of abundance and scarcity; still others vary wildly, with outbreaks and crashes that are in some cases plainly correlated with the weather, and in other cases not. To impose some order on this kaleidoscope of patterns, one school of thought proposes dividing populations into two groups. These ecologists posit that the relatively steady populations have density-dependent growth parameters; that is, rates of birth, death, and migration which depend strongly on population density.【F2】 The highly varying populations have density-independent growth parameters, with vital rates buffeted by environmental events; these rates fluctuate in a way that is wholly independent of population density. This dichotomy has its uses, but it can cause problems if taken too literally. For one thing, no population can be driven entirely by density-independent factors all the time. No matter how severely or unpredictably birth, death, and migration rates may be fluctuating around their long-term averages, if there were no density-dependent effects, the population would, in the long run, either increase or decrease without bound(barring a miracle by which gains and losses canceled exactly).【F3】 Put another way, it may be that on average 99 percent of all deaths in a population arise from density-independent causes, and only one percent from factors varying with density. The factors making up the one percent may seem unimportant, and their cause may be correspondingly hard to determine. Yet, whether recognized or not, they will usually determine the long-term average population density. In order to understand the nature of the ecologist"s investigation, we may think of the density-dependent effects on growth parameters as the signal ecologists are trying to isolate and interpret, one that tends to make the population increase from relatively low values or decrease from relatively high ones, while the density-independent effects act to produce noise in the population dynamics.【F4】 For populations that remain relatively constant, or that oscillate around repeated cycles, the signal can be fairly easily characterized and its effects described, even though the causative biological mechanism may remain unknown. 【F5】 For irregularly fluctuating populations, we are likely to have too few observations to have any hope of extracting the signal from the overwhelming noise. But it now seems clear that all populations are regulated by a mixture of density-dependent and density-independent effects in varying proportions.

The great recession may be over, but this era of high joblessness is probably beginning. Before it ends, it will likely change the life course and character of a generation of young adults. And ultimately, it is likely to reshape our politics, our culture, and the character of our society for years. No one tries harder than the jobless to find silver linings in this national economic disaster. Many said that unemployment, while extremely painful, had improved them in some ways: they had become less materialistic and more financially prudent; they were more aware of the struggles of others. In limited respects, perhaps the recession will leave society better off. At the very least, it has awoken us from our national fever dream of easy riches and bigger houses, and put a necessary end to an era of reckless personal spending. But for the most part, these benefits seem thin, uncertain, and far off. In The Moral Consequences of Economic Growth, the economic historian Benjamin Friedman argues that both inside and outside the U.S., lengthy periods of economic stagnation or decline have almost always left society more mean-spirited and less inclusive, and have usually stopped or reversed the advance of rights and freedoms. Anti-immigrant sentiment typically increases, as does conflict between races and classes. Income inequality usually falls during a recession, but it has not shrunk in this one. Indeed, this period of economic weakness may reinforce class divides, and decrease opportunities to cross them—especially for young people. The research of Till Von Wachter, the economic at Columbia University, suggests that not all people graduating into a recession see their life chances dimmed: those with degrees from elite universities catch up fairly quickly to where they otherwise would have been if they had graduated in better times; it is the masses beneath them that are left behind. In the Internet age, it is particularly easy to see the resentment that has always been hidden within American society. More difficult, in the moment, is discerning precisely how these lean times are affecting society' s character. In many respects, the U. S. was more socially tolerant entering this recession than at any time in its history, and a variety of national polls on social conflict since then have shown mixed results. We will have to wait and see exactly how these hard times will reshape our social fabric. But they certainly will reshape it, and all the more so the longer they extend.

The food you eat does more than provide energy. It can have a dramatic effect on your body"s ability to fight off heart disease, cancer, diabetes, high blood pressure, stroke, and weak bones. With remarkable consistency, recent research has found that a diet high in plant-based foods—fruits, vegetables, dried peas and beans, grains, and starchy staples such as potatoes—is the body"s best weapon in thwarting many health-related problems. These foods work against so many diseases that the same healthy ingredients you might use to protect your heart or ward off cancer will also benefit your intestinal tract and bones. Scientists have recently estimated that approximately 30 to 40 percent of all cancers could be averted if people ate more fruits, vegetables, and plant-based foods and minimized high-fat, high-calorie edibles that have scant nutritional value. Up to 70 percent" of cancers might be eliminated if people also stopped smoking, exercised regularly, and controlled their weight. In the past, researchers had linked fat consumption with the development of cancers, but they currently believe that eating fruits, vegetables, and grains may be more important in preventing the disease than not eating fat. "The evidence about a high-fat diet and cancer seemed a lot stronger several years ago than it does now", says Melanie Polk, a registered dietitian and director of nutrition education at the American Institute for Cancer Research. The road to strong bones is paved with calcium-rich food. Leafy green vegetables and low-fat dairy products are excellent sources of calcium, the mineral that puts stiffness into your skeletal system and keeps your bones from turning rubbery and fragile. Your body uses calcium for more than keeping your bones strong. Calcium permits cells, to divide, regulates muscle contraction and relaxation, and plays an important role in the movement of protein and nutrients inside cells. If you don"t absorb enough from what you eat to satisfy these requirements, your body will take it from your bones. Because your body doesn"t produce this essential mineral, you must continually replenish the supply. Even though the recommended daily amount is 1,200mg, most adults don"t eat more than 500mg. One reason may have been the perception that calcium-rich dairy products were also loaded with calories. "In the past, women, in particular, worried that dairy products were high in calories", says Letha Y. Griffin, M. D., of Peachtree Orthopaedics in Atlanta. "But today you can get calcium without eating any high-fat or high-calorie foods by choosing skim milk or low-fat yogurt". Also, low-fat dairy products contain phosphorous and magnesium and are generally fortified with vitamin D, all of which help your body absorb and use calcium. If you find it difficult to include enough calcium in your diet, ask your doctor about supplements. They"re a potent way to get calcium as well as vitamin D and other minerals. But if you rely on pills instead of a calcium-rich diet, you won"t benefit from the other nutrients that food provides. Getting the recommended vitamin D may be easy, since your body makes the vitamin when your skin is exposed to the sun"s rays.

[A] Title: ON MAKING FRIENDS [B] Time limit: 40 minutes [C] Word limit: 120~150 words (not including the given opening sentence) [D] Your composition should be based on the OUTLINE below and should start with the given opening sentence: "As a human being, one can hardly do without a friend." [E] Your composition must be written clearly on the ANSWER SHEET. (15 points) OUTLINE: 1. The need for friends 2. True friendship 3. My principle in making friends

Why is English so difficult? It is often thought that the number of words in the English language is a major reason, but this is not the real answer. Certainly, there are over half million words in the Oxford English Dictionary, but only about 10,000 are in general everyday use. A much stronger reason is the rich variety of sources from which English comes—sources that are due to the different people who have conquered or settled in parts of the British Isles over the past 1,300 years-and knowing more about the way English has evolved over this period makes its difficulties easier to understand. What do we mean by an "English" word? Many words are English in the sense that they can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxons—Germanic tribes which settled in England from around the fifth century A.D. They gave us many common words like book, house, cat and dog. Earlier still were the Celtic people whose speech survives in Scottish and Irish Gaelic, in Welsh, and in the local languages of two extremities of the British Isles, Manx and Cornish. There is practically no Celtic influence in English. This is because the Celts were forced back in to the fringes of the British Isles by the Anglo-Saxon invaders, and there was little cultural interaction. The next important influence on the main vocabulary of English came in the ninth and tenth centuries when much of the east side of England was in the hands of Danish invaders, and England as a whole had a Danish king Cnut (Canute) for a time. The Danes had much more contact with the Anglo-Saxons than did the Celts, and their short period of occupation has left its mark in the number of Scandinavian words taken into our language. Many of these are still in use, such as take and law, names of parts of the body such as leg and skull. Many more Scandinavian words are preserved in some dialects of the east side of England, in place-names and in street-names. The last time that England was successfully invaded was in 1052 when William of Normandy defeated the English king Harold at the Battle of Hastings. The arrival of the Normans brought a further decisive influence on the language—French. French, together with Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian is known as a Romance language, and has its roots in Latin. For several centuries, French was the language of the aristocracy in England and a large number of French words came into the language. Many of these words are to do with government, like justice, council and tax, and many are abstract terms like liberty, charity and conflict. Most of the words taken into the language over the years were adopted either because there was a basic need for them and they were useful or because they were preferable m some way to the words already in use. Often the old word disappeared altogether. In many cases, however, the new word and the old continued in use side by side on a roughly equal footing. This had produced pairs of words which are both in use today, like shut and close or buy and purchase, in which the second word of each pair is French in origin. In the first years after the Norman Conquest many new words were used only by the ruling class and professionals associated with them, such as scribes and clerks. The language of the common people remained largely unaffected. It was the spread of literacy and the development of printing that brought the French words into more general use. Often these were technical words, or words with an official ring, such as commence and purchase. The result was a mixture of types of words. For many meanings we now have a choice of formal and informal words, the formal ones often being used only in very specific situations.

"Popular art" has a number of meanings, impossible to define with any precision, which range from folklore to junk. The poles are clear enough, but the middle tends to blur. The Hollywood Western of the 1930"s for example, has elements of folklore, but is closer to junk than to high art or folk art. There can be great trash, just as there is bad high art. The musicals of George Gershwin are great popular art, never aspiring to high art. Schubert and Brahms, however, used elements of popular music—folk themes—in works clearly intended as high art. The case of Verdi is a different one: he took a popular genre-bourgeois melodrama set to music (an accurate definition of nineteenth-century opera) and, without altering its fundamental nature, transmuted it into high art. This remains one of the greatest achievements in music, and one that cannot be fully appreciated without recognizing the essential trashiness of the genre. As an example of such a transmutation, consider what Verdi made of the typical political elements of nineteenth-century opera. Generally in the plots of these operas, a hero or heroine—usually portrayed only as an individual, unfettered by class—is caught between the immoral corruption of the aristocracy and the doctrinaire rigidity or secret greed of the leaders of the proletariat. Verdi transforms this naive and unlikely formulation with music of extraordinary energy and rhythmic vitality, music more subtle than it seems at first hearing. There are scenes and arias that still sound like calls to arms and were clearly understood as such when they were first performed. Such pieces lend an immediacy to the otherwise veiled political message of these operas and call up feelings beyond those of the opera itself. Or consider Verdi"s treatment of character. Before Verdi, there were rarely any characters at all in musical drama, only a series of situations which allowed the singers to express a series of emotional states. Any attempt to find coherent psychological portrayal in these operas is misplaced ingenuity. The only coherence was the singer"s vocal technique: when the cast changed, new arias were almost always substituted, generally adapted from other operas. Verdi"s characters, on the other hand, have genuine consistency and integrity. Even if, in many cases, the consistency is that of pasteboard melodrama, the integrity of the character is achieved through the music: once he had become established. Verdi did not rewrite his music for different singers or countenance alterations or substitutions of somebody else"s arias in one of his operas, as every eighteenth-century composer had done. When he revised an opera, it was only for dramatic economy and effectiveness.

I don't teach because teaching is easy for me.

Studythefollowingbarchartcarefullyandwriteanessayinwhichyoushould1)describethebarchart,and2)deducethepossiblereasonsforthefact.3)Makearelevantprediction.Youshouldwriteabout160-200wordsneatly.

Newspaper publishers make money mainly from subscribers and advertisers. It"s been that way for centuries. But in the last few years an important new income stream has opened up for newspapers. Among the pioneers is The Gazette Company in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, which since 1993 has been providing information to its readers delivered by both paper and, increasingly, the Web. "If a newspaper views itself as ink on paper, I don"t think it will survive," says Steve Hannah, vice president of information technology. (46) Online newspapers are a look into the future, and just pondering it raises the question of whether it isn"t nicer getting your daily news curled up in your favorite chair with your ballpoint pen handy to circle items of interest, or scissors ready to snip out articles you want to save. The Gazette Company is betting its subscribers want both electronic and paper options, and so far it seems to be right. The rest of the world is moving into cyberspace more slowly than the United States, and, in the developing world, the Internet has hardly penetrated at all. (47) UN Secretary General Kofi Annan is determined to change this through the United Nations Information Technology Service, which will train large numbers of people to tap into the income-enhancing power of the Internet. Annan is also proposing an Internet health network that will provide state-of-the-art medical knowledge to 10,000 clinics and hospitals in poor countries. The onrushing Cyber Age has given newfound power to us all, as seen in Jody Williams"s one-woman organization using e-mail to promote a global ban on land mines. Yet, this is but a glimpse of what"s ahead in the minds of those immersed in this great and accelerating transformation. (48) At Microsoft, Bill Gates predicts that by 2018 major newspapers will "publish their last paper editions and move solely to electronic distribution", and that by 2020 dictionaries will redefine books as "eBook titles read on screen". (49) Computers have metamorphosed from the University of Pennsylvania"s 1946 ENIAC—whose more than 17,000 vacuum tubes had less number-crunching power than today"s laptop—into thumbnail-sized computer chips containing 42 million transistors. William Van Dusen Wishard, president of World Trends Research, is concerned. (50) In a speech to the Issue Management Council in Washington, D.C., he noted that "researchers at Carnegie Mellon University cite a two-year study showing depression and loneliness appearing at greater levels in people using the Internet than in others not using it, or not using it as much. Extensive exposure to the wider world via the Net appears to make people less satisfied with their personal lives".

The Term "CYBERSPACE" was coined by William Gibson, a science-fiction writer. In the book Mr. Gibson describes cyberspace as "a consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators" and "a graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system." The myriad connections forged by these computing devices have brought tremendous benefits to everyone who uses the web to tap into humanity's collective store of knowledge every day. But data breaches are becoming ever bigger and more common. Last year over 800m records were lost. The potential damage, though, extends well beyond such commercial incursions. America's president, Barack Obama, said in a White House press release earlier this year that cyber-threats "pose one of the gravest national-security dangers" the country is facing. Securing cyberspace is becoming harder. Cyber-security, which involves protecting both data and people, is facing multiple threats, notably cybercrime and online industrial espionage, both of which are growing rapidly. A recent estimate by the Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CEIS), puts the annual global cost of digital crime and intellectual-property theft at $445 billion—a sum roughly equivalent to the GDP of a smallish rich European country such as Austria. There is also the risk of cyber-sabotage. Terrorists or agents of hostile powers could mount attacks on companies and systems that control vital parts of an economy, including power stations, electrical grids and communications networks. Such attacks are hard to pull off, but not impossible. The biggest day-to-day threats faced by companies and government agencies come from crooks and spooks hoping to steal financial data and trade secrets. One is to ensure that organizations get the basics of cyber-security right. There is also a need to provide incentives to improve cyber-security, be they carrots or sticks. Cyberspace is about to undergo another massive change. Over the next few years billions of new devices, from cars to household appliances and medical equipment, will be fitted with tiny computers that connect them to the web and make them more useful. But unless these systems have adequate security protection, the internet of things could easily become the internet of new things to be hacked. Plenty of people are eager to take advantage of any weaknesses they may spot. Hacking used to be about geeky college kids tapping away in their bedrooms to annoy their elders. It has grown up with a vengeance.

Empirical evidence is evidence that one can see, hear, touch, taste, or smell; it is evidence that is susceptible to one"s senses.【F1】 Empirical evidence is important because it is evidence that others besides yourself can experience, and it is repeatable, so empirical evidence can be checked by yourself and others. 【F2】 Empirical evidence is the only type of evidence that possesses these attributes and is therefore the only type used by scientists and critical thinkers to make vital decisions and reach sound conclusions. We can contrast empirical evidence with other types of evidence to understand its value.【F3】 Hearsay evidence is what someone says they heard another say; it is not reliable because you cannot check its source. Better is testimonial evidence, which, unlike hearsay evidence, is allowed in courts of law. But even testimonial evidence is notoriously unreliable, as numerous studies have shown. Courts also allow circumstantial evidence(e. g. , means, motive, and opportunity), but this is obviously not reliable. The most common alternative to empirical evidence, authoritarian evidence, is what authorities(people, books, billboards, television commercials, etc.)tell you to believe. Sometimes, if the authority is reliable, authoritarian evidence is reliable evidence, but many authorities are not reliable, so you must check the reliability of each authority before you accept its evidence. In the end, you must be your own authority and rely on your own powers of critical thinking to know if what you believe is reliably true. Transmitting knowledge by authority is, however, the most common method among humans for three reasons; first, we are all conditioned from birth by our parents through the use of positive and negative reinforcement to listen to, believe, and obey authorities; second,【F4】 it is believed that human societies that relied on a few experienced or trained authorities for decisions that affected all had a higher survival value than those that didn"t, and thus the behaviorial trait of susceptibility to authority was strengthened and passed along to future generations by natural selection; third, authoritarian instruction is the quickest and most efficient method for transmitting information we know about.【F5】 But remember: some authoritarian evidence and knowledge should be validated by empirical evidence, logical reasoning, and critical thinking before you should consider it reliable, and, in most cases, only you can do this for yourself.

In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable one from the list (A、B、C、D、E、F、G……) to fit into each of the numbered blank. There are several extra choices, which do not fit in any of the gaps. (10 points) Water is the most common substance on earth. It covers more than 70 percent of the earth"s surface. It fills the oceans, rivers, and lakes, and is in the ground and in the air we breathe. Water is everywhere. Without water, there can be no life. In fact, every living thing consists mostly of water. (41)______ (42)______. Rain hammers at the land and washes soil into rivers. The oceans pound against the shores, chiseling cliffs and carrying away land. Rivers knife through rock, carve, canyons, and build up land where they empty into the sea. Glaciers plow valleys and cut down mountains. (43)______. Land absorbs and releases heat from the sun quickly. But the oceans absorb and release the sun"s heat slowly. So breezes from the oceans bring warmth to the land in winter and coolness in summer. Throughout history, water has been people"s slave and their master. Great civilizations have risen where water supplies were plentiful. They have fallen when these supplies failed. People have killed one another for a muddy water hole. They have worshiped rain gods and prayed for rain. Often when rains have failed to come, crops have withered and starvation has spread across a land. (44)______ Today, more than ever, water is both slave and master to people. We use water in our homes for cleaning, cooking, bathing, and carrying away wastes. We use water to irrigate dry farmlands so we can grow more food. Our factories use more water than any other material. We use the water in rushing rivers and thundering waterfalls to produce electricity. Our demand for water is constantly increasing. Every year, there are more people in the world. Factories turn out more and more products, and need more and more water. We live in a world of water. But almost all of it, about 97 per cent, is in the oceans. This water is too salty to be used for drinking, farming, and manufacturing. Only about 3 percent of the world"s water is fresh (unsalty). (45)______.A. Ever since the world began, water has been shaping the earth.B. When we are running, we feel thirsty and drink a lot of water. In fact, when we eat, the food consists of plenty of water.C. Water helps keep the earth"s climate from getting too hot or too cold.D. Sometimes the rains have fallen too heavily and too suddenly. Then rivers have overflowed their banks, drowning large numbers of people and causing enormous destruction of property.E. Your body is about two-thirds water. A chicken is about three-fourths water, and a pineapple is about four-fifths water. Most scientists believe that life itself began in water—in the salty water of the sea.F. Nowadays, scientists are considering making use of ocean water. The application of the 4technology to turn salty water into fresh water will come into being very soon.G. Most of this water is not easily available to people because it is locked in icecaps and other glaciers. By the year 2010, the world demand for fresh water may be double what it was in the 1980"s. But there will still be enough to meet people"s needs.

低碳也可促进经济 低碳经济是指温室气体排放量尽可能低的经济发展方式，尤其要有效控制二氧化碳这一主要温室气体的排放。 在全球变暖的大背景下，低碳经济受到越来越多国家的关注。低碳经济以低能耗、低排放、低污染为基础，其实质是 提高能源利用效率和创建清洁能源结构，核心是技术创新、制度创新和发展观的改变。发展低碳经济是一场涉及生 产模式、生活方式、价值观念和国家权益的全球性革命。 在即将于20日落幕的全国节能宣传周中，低碳经济成了一个热门词汇。低碳意味着环保，彰显出我们应对气 候变化的努力方向，但它并不仅仅意味着减少使用化石燃料。从国际经验来看，低碳经济是一项系统工程，低碳也 可以促进经济。 英国是全球低碳经济的积极倡导者和先行者。在2003年的能源白皮书中，英国首次以政府文件形式提出要创 建低碳经济，领先其他各国。英国将发展低碳经济置于国家战略高度，不仅是为了推动环保、应对气候变化，还希望 通过发展、应用和输出低碳技术来创造新的商机和就业机会，在未来可能的低碳大产业中占据先机。 以英国能源和气候变化部17日刚刚公布的“清洁煤炭”计划草案为例，评估认为，这一计划将在工程、制造等领 域提供3万到6万个就业岗位，到2030年它对英国经济的贡献值将达到每年40亿英镑。 其他发达国家在发展低碳经济上也不甘落后。美国奥巴马政府将把发展绿色能源作为重要的经济刺激手段， 计划在10年内创造500万个新能源、节能和清洁生产就业岗位；日本的《绿色经济与社会变革》政策草案被认为可 使日本环境领域的市场规模在2020年增长到120万亿日元(1美元约合96日元)。 具体来说，低碳目标最有可能在三个方面促进经济发展。首先是加速太阳能、风能等新能源产业的发展。这是 减少使用化石燃料，从而减排二氧化碳等温室气体的治本之策。目前世界新能源产业已具备相当规模，并正得到各 国持续追加的投资。 其次是对传统产业的低碳化升级改造。前述英国“清洁煤炭”计划便是针对煤电厂的技术改造计划，要求煤电厂 具有捕捉并储存二氧化碳的能力。汽车产业中兴起的电动汽车、生物能源汽车，也是传统产业向低碳化发展的范例。 最后，全球碳交易市场本身也是一种新兴的经济活动。根据联合国“清洁发展机制”等规定，没有减排指标的发 展中国家或减排工作做得较好的机构，可以将碳排放配额拿到市场上交易。碳交易已经有效帮助了许多发展中国 家的经济发展。 英国(前)首相布朗曾表示，英国将力争用“低碳经济模式”帮助经济复苏。在当前全球经济衰退的大背景下，低 碳经济将是科学而可持续发展的良好方向。 我们也参与了上面提到的日本和英国的合作研究，并进行了相应的针对中国低碳社会的研究。这里的研究目 标是在英国和日本等发达国家实现低碳社会理想的情况下，发展中国家和发达国家共享技术和对策，那么中国有可 能迎接低碳未来。这些技术或者政策有可能会晚些进入发展中国家，但只是时间的问题。 明年，有关部门将对完成“十一五”节能目标有困难的地区加强督导，确保节能减排设施的有效运行。同时在全 国范围内继续深入开展节能减排全民行动。此外，我国还将完善有关政策法规和标准，促进节能减排；积极推进十 大重点节能工程，全面实施节能产品惠民工程。在做好财政补贴推广高效节能空调的基础上，制定冰箱、洗衣机、平 板电视、燃气热水器、电机等节能产品的财政补贴推广实施细则。

People do not analyze every problem they meet. Sometimes they try to remember a solution from the last time they had a similar problem. They often accept the opinions or ideas of other people. Other times they begin to act without thinking; they try to find a solution by trial and error. However, when all these methods fail, the person with a problem has to start analyzing. There are six stages in analyzing a problem. First the person must recognize that there is a problem. For example, Sam"s bicycle is broken, and he cannot ride it to class as he usually does. Sam must see that there is a problem with his bicycle. Next the thinker must define the problem. Before Sam can repair his bicycle, he must find the reason why it does not work. For instance, he must determine if the problem is with the gears, the brakes, or the frame. He must make his problem more specific. Now the person must look for information that will make the problem clearer and lead to possible solutions. For in stance, suppose Sam decided that his bike does not work because there is something wrong with the gear wheels. At this time, he can look in his bicycle repair book and read about gears. He can talk to his friends at the bike shop. He can look at his gears carefully. After studying the problem, the person should have several suggestions for a possible solution. Take Sam as an illustration. His suggestions might be: put oil on the gear wheels; buy new gear wheels and replace the old ones; tighten or loosen the gear wheels. Eventually one suggestion seems to be the solution to the problem. Sometimes the final idea comes very suddenly because the thinker suddenly sees something new or sees something in a new way. Sam, for example, suddenly sees that there is a piece of chewing gum between the gear wheels. He immediately realizes the solution to his problem: he must clean the gear wheels. Finally the solution is tested. Sam cleans the gear wheels and finds that afterwards his bicycle works perfectly. In short, he has solved the problem.

[A] Message transmission in the body from the chemical perspective[B] How Food Influences Mood and Mind[C] Substances Contained in Some Foods can Improve Brainpower [D] An Example of the Influence of Food on Mind and Mood[E] Food Produces Chemical Messengers in the Brain[F] The Effects and Application of Neurotransmitters Hippocrates, the "Father of Medicine", said, "Let your food be your medicine, and let your medicine be your food. " For a Greek born in the fifth century B. C. , Hippocrates was wise beyond his time. Today, we know that a low-fat diet rich in whole grains, fruits, and vegetables strengthens the immune system and reduces the risk of cancer, heart disease, and stroke. But, Hippocrates, lend an ear! There's more to the story. New evidence suggests that food may influence how healthy people think and feel. Were he alive today, Hippocrates might look back to his last meal to explain his cheerful (or sour) mood. He might also change his eating habits to become happier or smarter. 【C1】______ Imagine yourself lying in bed, your mind in turmoil. You toss and turn, but sleep won't come. Maybe a bedtime snack would help. What should you choose? If you think first of toaster waffles or popcorn, some experts would say you're on the right track. Foods high in complex carbohydrates—such as cereals, potatoes, pasta, crackers, or rice cakes—make many people relaxed and drowsy. Try one more. You have a math test coming up in the afternoon. You want to be sharp, but you usually feel sleepy after lunch. Is your best choice an energy fix of fries and a shake or a broiled chicken breast and low-fat yogurt? If you pick the high-fat fries and shake,you may feel sluggish and blow that test. The protein-rich chicken and yogurt are better choices. Protein foods energize, some experts say. 【C2】______ How does food affect mood and mind? The answer may lie in the chemistry of the brain and nervous system. Molecules called neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. They carry a nerve impulse across the gap between nerve cells. The release of neurotransmitter molecules from one neuron and their attachment to receptor sites on another keep a nerve impulse moving. Nerve impulses carry messages from the environment to the brain for example, the pain you feel when you stub your toe. They also carry messages in the other direction, from the brain to the muscles. That's why you back away from the obstacle that initiated the pain signal and exclaim, "Ouch!" 【C3】______ "Many neurotransmitters are built from the foods we eat," says neuroscientist Eric Chudler of the University of Washington. Too little or too much of a particular nutrient in the diet can affect their production, Chudler says. For example, tryptophan from foods such as yogurt, milk, bananas, and eggs is required for the production of the neurotransmitter serotonin. 【C4】______ Dozens of neurotransmitters are known; hundreds may exist. Their effects depend on their amounts and where they work in the brain. The neurotransmitter serotonin, for example, is thought to produce feelings of calmness, relaxation, and contentment. Drugs that prevent its reuptake (into the neuron that released it) are prescribed to treat depression. In at least some healthy, non-depressed people, carbohydrate foods seem to enhance serotonin production and produce similar effects. "It is the balance between different neurotransmitters that helps regulate mood," Chudler says. 【C5】______ Proper nutrition may also enhance brainpower. Choline is a substance similar to the B vitamins. It's found in egg yolks, wholewheat, peanuts, milk, green peas, liver, beans, seafood, and soybeans. The brain uses it to make the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. To test the effects of choline on memory and learning, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology gave memory tests to college students before increasing the amount of choline in their subjects' diets. Later, they retested. On the average, memories were better, and the students learned a list of unrelated words more easily. "We're just scratching the surface in this field," says Larry Christensen, a psychologist at the University of South Alabama, "but we know that there are definite behavioral effects of diet." There's a lot to learn, and future research may reveal more about the chemistry of mood, brain, and nutrition. Until then, it makes sense to choose healthy foods that nourish both body and mind.