Most growing plants contain much more water than all other materials combined. C.R. Bames has suggested that it is as proper to term the plant a water structure as to call a house composed mainly of brick a brick building. Certainly it is that all essential processes of plant growth and development occur in water. The mineral elements from the soil that are usable by the plant must be dissolved in the soil solution before they can be taken into the root. They are carried to all parts of the growing plants and are built into essential plant materials while in a dissolved state. The carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air may enter the leaf as a gas but is dissolved in water in the leaf before it is combined with a part of the water to form simple sugars—the base material from which the plant body is mainly built. Actively growing plant parts are generally 75 to 90 percent water. Structural parts of plants, such as woody stems no longer actively growing, may have much less water than growing tissues. The actual amount of water in the plant at any one time, however, is only a very small part of what passes through it during its development. The processes of photosynthesis, by which carbon dioxide and water are combined—in the presence of chlorophyll(叶落素) and with energy derived from light—to form sugars, require that carbon dioxide from the air enter the plant. This occurs mainly in the leaves. The leaf surface is not solid but contains great numbers of minute openings, through which the carbon dioxide enters. The same structure that permits the one gas to enter the leaf, however, permits another gas—water vapor—to be lost from it. Since carbon dioxide is present in the air only in trace quantities (3 to 4 parts in 10,000 parts of air) and water vapor is near saturation in the air spaces within the leaf (at 80℉, saturated air would contain about 186 parts of water vapor in 10,000 parts of air), the total amount of water vapor lost is many times the carbon dioxide intake. Actually, because of wind and other factors, the loss of water in proportion to carbon dioxide intake may be even greater than the relative concentrations of the two gases. Also, not all of the carbon dioxide that enters the leaf is synthesized into carbohydrates.

Perhaps the most ambitious long-term health study ever planned by the National Institutes of Health(NET)has been hit by a NASA style price shock: Once estimated at $3 Billion over 25 years, the actual cost could be twice that much. The problem became public last week at a Capitol Hill hearing on the NIH budget. Acting NIH Director Raynard Kington said he has launched a high-level review of the plan to track the health of 100,000 children from before birth to age 21 and that the study will likely be scaled back. The National Children"s Study(NCS)grew out of a 2000 congressional directive to NIH to determine how environmental influences, from chemical contaminants to video games, shape the development of children and affect diseases such as autism and obesity. Researchers plan to recruit a diverse group of pregnant mothers at 105 sites around the United States by knocking on randomly selected doors. Congress provided $192 million in funding this year to set up the sites and launch a pilot study. Kington says he became concerned In early January after being informed of his staffs latest cost projections. It was since then that Kington realized "there was a fundamental problem in estimating the true costs." In order to turn things around, Kington has now added "greatly heightened oversight." That includes asking Claude Lenfant, former director of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, to return to NIH as his adviser on the study. NIH will also take a longer pause than originally planned after the 1-year pilot, which began in January at two of seven sites, to revise the protocol and reassess the costs. When trimming begins, Kington says he hopes the 100,000 sample size will be "the last thing" considered for cuts. But the size, number of hypotheses, and the protocols are all on the table. Pediatrician Philip Landrigan, who helped conceive the NCS, hopes not to lose components such as in-home detailed assessments of each child"s development which are expensive. "We"re just waiting to see how this works out," says Landrigan, whose team has knocked on more than 1000 doors in Queens and found that many women seem interested. The budget problems come as no surprise to former NIH Director Elias Zerhouni, who wanted to avoid funding for the NCS. Zerhouni says he had "severe reservations" about the potential cost and felt NIH should complete the pilot before any decisions were made about proceeding with the full study. Instead, "Congress interfered" by providing the money to move ahead anyway. "It was political management," Zerhouni says, and "I don"t think people should be shocked" at the result.

If good intentions and good ideas were all it took to save the deteriorating atmosphere, the planet"s fragile layer of air would be as good as fixed. The two great dangers threatening the blanket of gases that nurtures and protects life on earth—global warming and the thinning ozone layer—have been identified. Better yet, scientists and policymakers have come up with effective though expensive countermeasures. But that doesn"t mean these problems are anywhere close to being solved. The stratospheric ozone layer, for example, is still getting thinner, despite the 1987 international agreement known as the Montreal Protocol, which calls for a phaseout of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting chemicals by the year 2006. CFCs—first fingered as dangerous in the 1970s by Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, two of this year"s Nobel—prizewinning chemists—have been widely used for refrigeration and other purposes. If uncontrolled, the CFC assault on the ozone layer could increase the amount of hazardous solar ultraviolet light that reaches the earth"s surface, which would, among other things, damage crops and cause cancer in humans. Thanks to a sense of urgency triggered by the 1985 detection of what has turned out to be an annual "hole" in the especially vulnerable ozone over Antarctica, the Montreal accords have spurred industry to replace CFCs with safer substances. Yet the CFCs already in the air are still doing their dirty work. The Antarctic ozone hole is more severe this year than ever before, and ozone levels over temperate regions are dipping as well. If the CFC phaseout proceeds on schedule, the atmosphere should start repairing itself by the year 2000, say scientists. Nonetheless, observes British Antarctic Survey meteorologist Jonathan Shanklin: "It will be the middle of the next century before things are back to where they were in the 1970s". Developing countries were given more time to comply with the Montreal Protocol and were promised that they would receive $250 million from richer nations to pay for the CFC phaseout. At the moment, though, only 60% of those funds has been forthcoming. Says Nelson Sabogal of the U.N. Environment Program: "If developed countries don"t come up with the money, the ozone layer will not recuperate. This is a crucial time". It is also a critical time for warding off potentially catastrophic climate change. Waste gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and the same CFCs that wreck the ozone layer all tend to trap sunlight and warm the earth. The predicted results: an eventual melting of polar ice caps, rises in sea levels and shifts in climate patterns.

A scientist who does research in economic psychology and who wants to predict the way in which consumers will spend their money must study consumer behavior. He must obtain (1)_____ both on resources of consumers and on the motives that (2)_____ to encourage or discourage money spending. If an (3)_____ were asked which of three groups borrow most—people with rising incomes, (4)_____ incomes, or declining incomes—he would (5)_____ answer: those with declining incomes. Actually, in the years 1997—2000, the answer was: people with rising incomes. People with declining incomes were next and people with stable incomes borrowed the (6)_____. This shows us that traditional (7)_____ about earning and spending are not always (8)_____ Another traditional assumption is that if people who have money expect prices to go up, they will (9)_____ to buy. If they expect prices to go down, they will postpone buying. (10)_____ research surveys have shown that this is not always (11)_____ The expectations of price increases may not stimulate buying. One (12)_____ attitude was ex-pressed by the wife of a mechanic in an interview at a time of rising prices. Her family had been planning to buy a new car but they postponed this purchase. (13)_____, the rise in prices that has al-ready taken place may be resented and buyer"s resistance may be evoked. The (14)_____ mentioned above was carried out in America. Investigations (15)_____ at the same time in Great Britain, however, yielded results that were more (16)_____ traditional assumptions about saving and spending patterns. The condition most contributive to spending (17)_____ to be price stability. If prices have been stable and people consider that they are (18)_____, they are likely to buy. Thus, it appears that the common (19)_____ policy of maintaining stable prices is based on a correct understanding of (20)_____ psychology.

Has America gone insane? Season six for American Idol has caused us to ask some fundamental questions about the reality television phenomenon. Show judge Simon Cowell repeatedly chides(斥责) contestants", This is a singing competition. But is it really? When talented singers such as Gina Glocksen are voted off in favor of a tone-deaf Sanjaya Malakar, with his trainwreck performances, the question is whether Idol is really a singing competition, or something altogether different. Although Sanjaya was only in the middle of the pack for last week"s vote, on the Web he was the most searched for Idol contestant of the season, garnering(获得) more than twice the volume of searches than his nearest rival (not counting the continuing quests for racy photos of Antonella Barba, who is no longer in the competition). Theories abound as to Sanjaya"s staying power on the show, from suggestions of a flood of offshore voting to the texting power of pre-pubescent girls. There is one theory that can actually be quantified by Internet data: shock-jock Howard Stern"s campaigning for show-spoiler site Vote for the Worst" to support voting for the entertaining contestants who the producers would hate to see win on American Idol, according to site creator Dave Della Terza, who teaches a course in reality television at the College of DuPage in Glen Ellyn, Ill. While Votefortheworst.com is small compared to the official American Idol site, the fact that it gets nearly a fifth as many online visits gives it the strength to sway a vote. Vote for the Worst is gaining strength, with over a 50% growth since last season, which can be attributed largely to the self-proclaimed "King of All Media". But what does the American public think of the unlikely Idol star? Of all of the searches for Sanjaya over the last four weeks, 41% were searching on variations of his name", Sanjaya, or" Sanjaya Malakar, and various misspellings. At least 2.9% searched for information on Sanjaya"s sister, who didn"t make the cut on the show. The next most popular search topic regarded questions about Sanjaya"s sexual orientation, with searches such as "Sanjaya Malakar gay", "Sanjaya gay" and" is Sanjaya gay? What"s missing are searches related to Sanjaya"s musical selection or talent. The Sanjaya phenomenon, while amusing, highlights the biggest challenge to reality shows that depend on a public vote for show outcome. It"s not a singing contest, or even a popularity contest; it"s become a race to see who can make the biggest spectacle. In that context, Sanjaya has the advantage.

A second conclusion to be drawn from experience is the close connection between export expansion and economic development. The high-growth countries were characterized by rapid expansion in exports. Here again it is important to note that export expansion was not confined to those countries fortunate in their natural resources, such as the oil-exporting countries.【F1】 Some of the developing countries were able to expand their exports in spite of limitations in natural resources by initiating economic policies that shifted resources from inefficient domestic manufacturing industries to export production. Nor was export expansion from the developing countries confined to primary products. There was very rapid expansion of exports of labour-intensive manufactured goods. Countries that adopted export-oriented development strategies experienced extremely high rates of growth that were regarded as unattainable in the 1950s and 1960s. They were also able to maintain their growth momentum during periods of worldwide recession better than were the countries that maintained their import substitution policies. Analysts have pointed to a number of reasons why the export-oriented growth strategy seems to deliver more rapid economic development than the import substitution strategy.【F2】 First, a developing country able to specialize in producing labour-intensive commodities uses its comparative advantage in the international market and is also better able to use its most abundant resource—unskilled labour. The experience of export-oriented countries has been that there is little or no disguised unemployment once labour-market regulations are dismantled and incentives are created for individual firms to sell in the export market. Second, most developing countries have such small domestic markets that efforts to grow by starting industries that rely on domestic demand result in uneconomically small, inefficient enterprises. Moreover, those enterprises will typically be protected from international competition and the incentives it provides for efficient production techniques.【F3】 Third, an export-oriented strategy is inconsistent with the impulse to impose detailed economic controls; the absence of such controls, and their replacement by incentives, provides a great stimulus to increases in output and to the efficiency with which resources are employed. 【F4】 The increasing capacity of a developing country"s entrepreneurs to adapt their resources and internal economic organization to the pressures of world-market demand and international competition is a very important connecting link between export expansion and economic development. 【F5】 It is important in this connection to stress the educative effect of freer international trade in creating an environment conducive to the acceptance of new ideas, new wants, and new techniques of production and methods of organization from abroad.

Humanity"s greatest accomplishment of the past five decades, declared Bill Gates this week, is the reduction in the number of deaths among young children by half, to 10 million a year in 2007. The world"s most successful capitalist heaped praise on the World Health Organization(WHO), while unveiling an ambitious new global scheme to eliminate polio within a few years. For his part, the agency"s top polio man, Bruce Aylward, described the fight against the disease in the language of markets: "Elimination is the venture capital of public health: the risks are huge but so too are the rewards." The use of this sort of language captures a change in public health in the past decade. The Gates Foundation, with its pots of money and businesslike approach, has transformed the bureaucratic and disheartened world of public health. It has helped revive ailing campaigns, including the fight against polio. This will now get a fresh $600m-plus, from British and German taxpayers, from the Rotary Club International, as well as from the Gates Foundation($255m). The decline from 350,000 new cases in 1988(when the goal of rapid polio eradication was first declared)to 2,000 cases now(chiefly in Nigeria, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan)looks like a near victory. But the final stretch is the hardest. Only one in 200 cases is readily vulnerable to early detection(as opposed to most victims of smallpox—a serious infectious disease that causes spots which leave deep marks on the skin, already eliminated). Polio is also far more infectious. Other obstacles are that the usual vaccine has not worked well in densely populated, disease-ridden central India. Researchers are now trying to find a vaccine that fits those conditions better. Neal Halsey, of Johns Hopkins University, says the "live" vaccines used commonly today must be backed up with further doses of "inactivated" vaccines. These need to become cheaper. The fighting in Afghanistan and Pakistan has hampered vaccination programs there. So have rumors among Muslims in northern Nigeria that the vaccination program was in fact a conspiracy to sterilize children. That allowed the polio virus to strengthen and spread. The Nigerian strain may have now reached a dozen other countries. The final push towards elimination will certainly be costly, though several recent studies suggest that it is cheaper to spend money on a big elimination effort now than to pay the price later for sustained vigilance and health costs. The prospect of a global revival is concentrating minds. That is why, despite the daunting challenges and potential donor fatigue, the world may end up making a go of elimination this time.

BSection II Reading Comprehension/B

The Californian coastline north and south of Silicon Valley is a trend-setting sort of place. Increasingly, the home interiors of the well-heeled there tend toward one of two (1)_____. Houses are (2)_____ light-flooded, sparse and vaguely Asian in (3)_____, with perhaps a Zen fountain in one corner, a Yoga area in another. Or they resemble electronic control rooms with all sorts of (4)_____, computers, routers, antennae, screens and remote controls. Occasionally, both elements are (5)_____. "She" may have the living room and public areas, (6)_____ "he" is banished with his toys up or down the stairs. Currently, the gadget lovers have powerful allies. Many of the largest companies in the consumer-electronics, computer, telecoms and internet industries have made a strategic decision to (7)_____ visions of a "digital home", "eHome", or "connected home". Doubting that (8)_____ from corporate customers will ever (9)_____ to the boom levels of the late 1990s, Microsoft, Intel, Sony, Verizon, Comcast, Hewlett-Packard, Apple and others see the consumer (10)_____ their best chance for growth and will be throwing a bewildering (11)_____ of home "solutions" at (12)_____ in the coming months and years. To understand what the (13)_____ ultimately have in (14)_____ it is best to visit the (15)_____ homes that most have built on their campuses or at trade shows. (16)_____ cosy and often intimidating, these feature flat screens almost everywhere, (17)_____ electronic picture frames in the bedroom from the large TV-substitute in the living room. Every (18)_____ has a microchip and can be (19)_____ to, typed into or clicked onto. Everything is (20)_____ to a central computer through wireless links.

BSection II Reading Comprehension/B

Many professions are associated with a particular stereotype. The classic (1)_____ of a writer, for example, is (2)_____ a slightly crazy-looking person, (3)_____ in an attic, writing away furiously for days (4)_____ end. Naturally, he has his favorite pen and note-paper, or a beat-up typewriter, (5)_____ which he could not produce a readable word. Nowadays, we know that such images bear little (6)_____ to reality. But are they completely (7)_____? In the case of at least one writer, it would seem not. Dame Muriel Spark, who (8)_____ 80 in February, in many ways resembles this stereotypical "writer". She is certainly not (9)_____, and she doesn"t work in an attic. But she is rather particular (10)_____ the tools of her trade. She insists on writing with a (11)_____ type of pen in a certain type of notebook, which she buys from a certain stationer in Edinburgh called James Thin. In fact, so (12)_____ is she that, if someone uses one of her pens by (13)_____, she immediately throws it away. And she claims she (14)_____ enormous difficulty writing in any notebook other than (15)_____ sold by James Thin. This could soon be a (16)_____, as the shop no longer stocks them, (17)_____ Dame Muriel"s supply of 72-page spiral bound is nearly (18)_____. As well as her "obsession" about writing materials, Muriel Spark (19)_____ one other characteristic with the stereotypical "writer": her work is the most (20)_____ thing in her life. It has stopped her from marrying; cost her old friends and made her new ones, and driven her from London to New York to Rome. Today she lives in the Italian province of Tuscany with a friend.

Write a letter to your general manager, Mr. David, telling him that you've decided to quit the job as a secretary in the company. You should write about 100 words on the ANSWER SHEET. Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use "Li Ming" instead. Do not write the address. (10 points)

The moon appears to warp the minds of some men. Despite putting men on the moon in 1969 America seems determined on re-enacting the space race, this time pitting its efforts against those of the Chinese. Now a Russian company claims it could develop a system to exploit the moon"s natural resources and potentially relocate harmful industries there. This is lunacy. Russia certainly has great prowess in space. In its former guise as the centre of power in the Soviet Union it launched the first man-made satellite in 1957. In a spectacular follow up, Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space in 1961. Another triumph came in 1968 when the Russians sent a spaceship to orbit the moon with turtles aboard, returning it and its living cargo safely to Earth. An unmanned Russian spacecraft also landed on the moon ahead of the first manned landing by the Americans. Even after Neil Armstrong took his one small step, Russia has proved its superiority in keeping people in space stations orbiting the Earth. The Russian Soyuz rocket is a mainstay of satellite launches and would be used to rescue astronauts should any accident befall the International Space Station. Head of the spacecraft manufacturer that helped achieve these Russian successes, this week boasted that his rockets could be used to industrialise the moon. So why were his remarks greeted with such scepticism? One reason for the cynicism is that the idea is absurd. A United Nations treaty passed in 1967 bans potentially harmful interference with the Earth"s original satellite and requires international consultation before proceeding with any activity that could disrupt the peaceful exploration of space, including the moon. A second problem is that landing on the moon has proved beyond the budget of any state other than America and of any private company to date. In fact one of the best hopes for investment comes from space tourism. On Saturday April 7th, the fifth such holidaymaker entered space aboard a Russian Soyuz rocket. Charles Simonyi, an American software developer, paid $25m for his ten-day stay at the International Space Station. The next holiday destination is the moon. The tour operator that organised the first five packages is offering two tickets to orbit the moon for $100m each. Launch would be aboard a Soyuz spacecraft. But the Soyuz system was designed in the 1960s and has been on the verge of retirement for many years. Unfortunately the Russian authorities have postponed indefinitely the development of a successor. Thus the claim of the industrialisation of the moon is unlikely to succeed.

BPart CDirections: Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese./B

In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable one from the list (A、B、C、D、E、F、G……) to fit into each of the numbered blank. There are several extra choices, which do not fit in any of the gaps. (10 points) The government panel that sets U.S. vaccine policy already has begun discussing "universal immunization"* as a way to boost vaccination rates and reduce flu-linked sickness and death, Dr. Scott Harper of the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said at a vaccine meeting this week. (41)______. Harper acknowledged that the recent crisis momentarily upstaged universal immunization discussions, but said it remains a viable proposal. (42)______. The vaccine meeting, held every year, seeks to set an agenda for the upcoming flu season. Participants—many with a financial stake in getting more people vaccinated—said the universal vaccination push is likely to come within the next five years. (43)______. Also, flu vaccine is altered every year because there are always different flu strains circulating. The unused vaccine is discarded at season"s end, making flu shots financially unappealing for manufacturers. (44)______. Sanofi Pasteur"s Philip Hosbach said the company has two idle U.S. factories "because there"s not the return on the investment." Universal vaccination could in the long term help stabilize supply if it increased demand, he said. (45)______. Demand has historically been a problem, too. Millions of the at-risk patients routinely skip annual shots. Some people worry the vaccine isn"t safe or they simply don"t like shots, but many also underestimate the seriousness of flu, said Dr. Ann O"Malley, a researcher at the Center for Studying Health System Change.A. "Part of our job is to just keep this issue on the radar screen," Harper told vaccine providers, distributors and manufacturers at the national flu vaccine summit here.B. So far only one company, Sanofi Pasteur, is licensed to make U.S. flu vaccine for the upcoming season, though public health officials hope two others, including Chiron, will soon gain approval.C. Estimates suggest that in an average year, flu infects about 82 million people nationwide, hospitalizes 200,000 and kills 36,000.D. Dr. Herb Young of the American Academy of Family Physicians said recommending shots for everyone could ease the confusion and that his group is moving toward supporting the idea.E. The hurdles, some observers say, are daunting. Unstable supply is one of the biggest. This year the best case scenario—having about 90 million shots available—isn"t even enough for the 180 million high-risk people advised to get shots, let alone the total population of 280 million.F. The end of a chaotic season where many people seeking flu shots were turned away because of a shortage might seem an odd time to broach the idea of vaccinating even more people.G. But Ira Longini, an Emery University biostatistician who specializes in vaccine analysis, said universal vaccination would be unworkable unless supply problems can be resolved.

Difficulties in intercultural communication arise when there is little or no awareness of divergent cultural values and beliefs. (46) In cross-cultural interaction, speakers sometimes assume that what they believe is right, because they have grown up thinking their way is the best. This ethnocentric assumption can result in negative judgments about other cultures. Another manifestation of ethnocentric attitudes is that people become critical of individuals from different cultures. (47) Sometimes negative reactions do not result from actual interaction but rather from the fixed, preconceived beliefs we have about other people. These over generalized beliefs or" stereotypes frequently shape people"s perceptions of each other. Stereotypes originate and develop from numerous sources such as jokes, textbooks, movies, and television. Movies about cowboys and Indians portray cowboys as "civilized" and Indians as wild and "primitive". A child who knows about the American Indian only through watching these movies will have a distorted and false image of this group of people. (48) Stereotypes perpetuate inaccuracies about religions, racial, and cultural groups. (49) Stereotyped beliefs prevent us from seeing people as individuals with unique characteristics. Negative stereotypes lead to prejudice: suspicion, intolerance, or hatred of other cultural groups. Cultural conflicts occur as a result of misinterpretations, ethnocentrism, stereotypes, and prejudice. Preventing these conflicts is possible with increased awareness of our own attitudes as well as sensitivity to cross-cultural differences. (50) Developing intercultural sensitivity does not mean that we need to lose our cultural identities—but rather that we recognize cultural influences within ourselves and within others.

Writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressay,youshould1)describethedrawingbriefly,2)explainitsintendedmeaning,and3)giveyourcomments.YoushouldwriteneatlyontheANSWERSHEET.(20points)

The Students" Union of your department is planning a Chinese Speaking Contest. Write an announcement which covers the following information: 1) the purpose of the contest, 2) time and place of the contest, 3) what is required of the candidates, 4) details of the judges and awards. You should write about 100 words on the ANSWER SHEET. Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use "Department of Chinese Language and Literature" instead. Do not write the address. (10 points)

A Recommendation Write a recommendation of about 100 words based on the following situation: You are a professor, and your student Gloria has applied for a part-time job. Please write a recommendation for her to the company she applied to. Do not sign your own name at the end of the recommendation. Use "Professor Li" instead. Do not write the address.

Culture influences an individual"s health beliefs, behaviours, activities and medical treatment outcomes.【C1】______the significant influence of culture upon health and related outcomes, health care【C2】______should be culturally competent in order to provide【C3】______health care to patients. Cultural competency means considering many options and being more careful about making judgements.【C4】______, scars and bruises that suggest abuse in western culture could【C5】______be symbols of accepted healing methods or sacred rituals.【C6】______, different parts of the body are considered sacred in different cultures. Cultural competency in healthcare【C7】______four major challenges for providers. The first is the straightforward challenge of recognizing clinical【C8】______among people of different ethnic and racial groups, e.g., higher【C9】______of hypertension in African Americans and【C10】______diabetes in certain Native American groups. The second, and far more complicated, challenge is【C11】______. This deals with everything from the need for interpreters to nuances of words in various languages. Many patients, even in western cultures, are【C12】______to talk with their doctors about【C13】______personal matters as sexual activity or chemical use. How do we overcome this【C14】______among more restricted cultures? The third challenge is ethics.【C15】______western medicine is among the best in the world, we do not have all the【C16】______. Respect for the belief systems of【C17】______and the effects of those beliefs on well-being are critically important to competent care. The final challenge involves【C18】______. For some patients, authority figures are immediately mistrusted,【C19】______for good reason. Having seen or been victims of atrocities at the hands of authorities in their homelands, many people are as【C20】______of caregivers themselves as they are of the care.