At the end of the U. S. Civil War, about four million slaves were freed. Now, people around the world can hear some of the former slaves' stories for the first time ever, as told in their own voices. "That was inslavery time, "says Charlie Smith in one interview. "They sold the colored people. And they were bringing them from Africa. They brought me from Africa. I was a child." The Library of Congress released the collection of recordings, Voices from the Days of Slavey, in January. The recorrdings were made between 1932 and 1975. Speaking at least 60 years after their emancipation(解放) ,the story teller discuss their experiences as slaves. They also tell about their lives as free men and women. Isom Moseley was just a boy at the time of emancipation, but he recalls that things were slow to change. "It was a year before the folks knowed they was free," he says. Michael Taft, the head of the library's archive of folk culture, says the recordings reveal something that written stores cannot. "The power of hearing someone speak is so much greater than reading someming from the page," Taft says. "It's how something is said—the dialect, the low pitches, the pauses--that helps tell the Story./

{{B}}Passage Three{{/B}} Nowadays, we hear a lot about the growing threat of globalization, accompanied by those warnings that the rich pattern of local life is being undermined, and many dialects and traditions are becoming extinct. But stop and think for a moment about the many positive aspects that globalization is bringing. Read on and you are bound to feel comforted, ready to face the global future, which is surely inevitable now. Consider the Internet, that prime example of our shrinking world. Leaving aside the all-to-familiar worries about pornography and political extremism, even the most narrow-minded must, admit that the net offers im-measurable benefits, not just in terms of education, the sector for which it was originally designed, but more importantly on a global level, the spread of news and comment. It will be increasingly difficult for politicians to maintain their regimes of misinformation, as the oppressed will not only find support and comfort, but also be able to organize themselves more effectively. MTV is another global provider that is often criticized for imposing popular calture on the unsuspecting millions around the worlD. Yet the viewers judgement on MTV is undoultedly positive; it is regarded as in- dispensable by most of the global teenage generation who watch it, a vital part of growing up. And in the final analysis,what harm can a few songs and videos cause? Is the world dominance of brands like Nike and Coca- Cola so bad for us when all is said and done? Sportswear and soft drinks are harmless products when com- pared to the many other things that have been globally available for a longer period of time—heroin and cocaine, for example. In any case, just because Nike shoes and Coke cans are for sale, it doesn't mean you have to buy them—even globalization cannot deprive the individnal of his free will. Critics of globalization can stop issning their doom and gloom statements. Life goes on, and has more to offer for many citizens of the world than it did for their parents’generatiorn.

{{B}}Directions:{{/B}} For each blank in the following passage, choose the best answer from the choices given below. Mark your answer on the Answer Sheet by drawing with a pencil a short bar across the corresponding letter in the brackets. Adult education is the practice of teaching and educating adults. This is often done in the workplace, or{{U}} (31) {{/U}}"continuing education" courses at secondary schools, or at a college or university. Educating adults differs from educating{{U}} (32) {{/U}}in several ways. One of the most important{{U}} (33) {{/U}}is that adults have gained knowledge and experience which can{{U}} (34) {{/U}}add value to a learning experience or interfere with it. Another important difference is that adults frequently must apply their knowledge in some{{U}} (35) {{/U}}fashion in order to learn effectively there must be a{{U}} (36) {{/U}}and a reasonable expectation that the new knowledge will help them further that goal. One example,{{U}} (37) {{/U}}in the 1990s, was the spread of computer training courses in{{U}} (38) {{/U}}adults, most of them office workers, could enroll These courses would teach basic use of the operating system or specific application{{U}} (39) {{/U}}. Because the skills{{U}} (40) {{/U}}to interact with a PC were so new, many people who had been working white-collar jobs for ten years or more eventually took such training courses, either of their own will (to gain computer skills and thus can higher pay) or at the request of their managers.

Is there something as truth? For a good many centuries "the search for truth" has been{{U}}(31) {{/U}} the noblest activity of the human mind, but the seekers after truth have come to such{{U}}(32) {{/U}} conclusions that it often seems that very little progress has been made. {{U}}(33) {{/U}} ,there are many people who reel that we are actually going backward. They {{U}} (34) {{/U}} , often contemptuously, that we have accumulated more "knowledge" than our ancestors, but they think we are farther from the truth than ever, or even that we have {{U}}(35) {{/U}} the truth that we once possessed. If people look for anything long enough without finding it, the question naturally arises{{U}}(36) {{/U}} the thing is really there to find. You have seen a picture of an animal with a lion's head, a goat's body, and a serpent's tail—and maybe an eagle's wings for good {{U}}(37) {{/U}} . There is plenty of evidence that each part of this animal {{U}}(38) {{/U}} —but there is no {{U}}(39) {{/U}} evidence that the parts ever occur in this combination. It is at least conceivable that the seekers after "truth" have made a similar mistake and invented an {{U}}(40) {{/U}} combination.

判断题There are some unique problems in international trade and companies doing business overseas must be aware of them. In particular, these include (a) cultural problems, (b) monetary conversion, and (c) trade barriers. When companies do business overseas, they come in contact with people from different cultures. These individuals often speak a different language and have their own particular custom and manners. These differences can create problems. For example, in France, business meetings begin promptly at the designated time and everyone is expected to be there. Foreign business people who are late are often left outside to cool their heels as a means of letting them know the importance of promptness. Unless one is aware of such expected behaviors he may end up insulting the people with whom he hopes to establish trade relations. A second traditional problem is that of monetary conversion. For example, if a transaction is conducted with Russia, payment may be made in rubles. Of course, this currency is of little value to the American firm. It is, therefore, necessary to convert the foreign currency to American dollars. How much are these Russian rubles worth in terms of dollars? This conversion rate is determined by every market, where the currencies of countries are bought and sold. Thus there is an established rate, although it will often fluctuate from day to day. For example, the ruble may be worth $0.75 on Monday and $0.72 on Tuesday because of all announced wheat shortage in Russia. In addition, there is the dilemma associated with converting at $0.72. Some financial institutions may be unwilling to pay this price, feeling that the ruble will sink much lower over the next week. As a result, conversion may finally come at $0.69. These "losses" must be accepted by the company as one of the costs of doing business overseas. A third unique problem is trade barriers. For one reason or another, all countries impose trade barriers on certain goods crossing their borders. Some trade barriers are directly related to exports. For example, the United States permits strategic military material to be shipped abroad only after government permission has been obtained. Most trade barriers, however, are designed to restrict imports. Two of the most common import barriers are quotas and tariffs. A quota is a quantitative restriction that is expressed in terms of either physical quantity or value. For example, a quota that states that no more than 50000 Class A widgets may be imported from Europe each year is a restriction stated in terms of physical quantity. Meanwhile, a quota that restricts the importation of a certain type of Japanese glassware to no more than $1 million worth a year is stated in terms of value. A tariff is a duty or fee levied on goods being imported into the country. These tariffs can be of two types: revenue or protective. A revenue tariff is designed to raise money for the government. These tariffs are usually low, often amounting to less than twenty-five cents per item or pound. A protective tariff is designed to discourage foreign businesses from shipping certain goods into the country. The basic reason for a protective tariff is to keep out goods that will undersell products made in the home country. For this reason, protective tariffs are often very high, thus forcing the foreign business to raise its prices to cover the tariff.

判断题Ⅰ．Too Many People Figures and numerous facts prove that there are already, and certainly that where will be, too many people. Simply calculating the lengths of time necessary to double the world's population is instructive. Impressively, the time required grows ever shorter: 6,000 years before Christ, 1,000,000 years were necessary to double the population, then about 1,650 years after Christ only 1,000 around the 1850's 200 years, in 1930's 80 years. Currently, the world's population doubles every 37 years. What would happen if the population were to continue doubling in volume every 37 years? According to recent calculations, maintaining such a rhythm of growth would result in 60 million billion people on the earth in 900 years, which represents 120 inhabitants per square meter. Optimists believe and often assert that science will indeed find solutions to the problem of overcrowding, namely by providing the means to immigrate to other planets. But this solution is totally impossible. In effect, even if it should become possible, 50 years would be sufficient for the 60 million billion persons to multiply to the point of populating Venus, Mercury, Mars, the Moon and the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn with a density equal to that of the Earth. Ⅱ．Food shortage Today, a good part of humanity suffers from malnutrition or from undernourishment. Some think that the recent scientific discoveries applied to agriculture and known under the name of "green revolution" will resolve the problem. Nothing is less certain. Promoters of the revolution themselves believe that it can offer only a respite of ten or twenty years. In underdeveloped countries, although mostly agricultural, the lag in food production in relation to population growth increases more and more. As the crisis worsens these countries will have to import food. But from where? Ⅲ．A Dying Planet The world's population explosion is the source of a whole series of environmental deteriorations, which in time can have disastrous consequences. Because the population—food imbalance makes it necessary to increase agricultural production "at any price", methods often harmful to the environment are used without judgment. For example, the construction of huge dams to irrigate hundreds of thousands of acres can in fact provoke catastrophes. Thus, the Aswan Dam currently prevents the deposit of fertile silts brought each year by the flooding of the Nile. The result will obviously be a decrease in the fertility of the Delta lands. Damming the Mekong risks the same consequences for Vietnam and neighbouring countries. Fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, DDT can be devastating, transforming complex ecosystems, necessary for the conservation of the environment, into simple ecosystems. Certain situations are perceived as dangerous only when they become critical enough to cause numerous deaths. Smog is an example. In London in 1952 it caused some 4,000 deaths. This incident provoked an awakening of conscience and resulted in decisions, which have proven effective. But smog presents still other dangers: namely, it destroys plants which offer little resistance, and whose oxygen production is indispensable to us, and it changes the earth's thermal equilibrium. For these forms of pollution as for all the others, the destructive chain of cause and effect goes back to a prime cause: "too many cars, too many factories, too many detergents, too many pesticides, more and more trails left by supersonic jets, inadequate methods for disinfecting sewers, too little water, too much carbon monoxide. The cause is always the same: too many people on the earth./

判断题In 1998 consumers could purchase virtually anything over the Internet. Books, compact discs, and even stocks were available from World Wide Web sites that seemed to spring up almost daily. A few years earlier, some people had predicted that consumers accustomed to shopping in stores would be reluctant to buy things that they could not see or touch in person. For a growing number of time-starved consumers, however, shopping from their home computer was proved to be a convenient alternative to driving to the store. A research estimated that in 1998 US consumers would purchase $7.3 billion of goods over the Internet, double the 1997 total. Finding a bargain was getting easier owing to the rise of online auctions and Web sites that did comparison shopping on the Internet for the best deal. For all the consumer interest, retailing in cyberspace was still a largely unprofitable business, however. Internet pioneer Amazon. com, which began selling books in 1995 and later branched into recorded music and videos, posted revenue of $153.7 million in the third quarter, up from $37.9 million in the same period of 1997. Overall, however, the company's loss widened to $45.2 million from $9.6 million, and analysis did not expect the company to turn a profit until 2001. Despite the great loss, Amazon. com had a stock market value of many billions, reflecting investors' optimism about the future of the industry. Internet retailing appealed to investors because it provided an efficient means for reaching millions of consumers without having the cost of operating conventional stores with their armies of salespeople. Selling online carried its own risks, however. With so many companies competing for consumers' attention, price competition was intense and profit margins thin or nonexistent. One video retailer sold the hit movie Titanic for $9.99, undercutting (削价) the $19.99 suggested retail price and losing about $6 on each copy sold. With Internet retailing still in its initial stage, companies seemed willing to absorb such losses in an attempt to establish a dominant market position.

判断题It is all very well to blame traffic jams, the cost of petrol and the quick pace of modern life, but manners on the roads are becoming horrible. You might tolerate the rude and inconsiderate driver, but nowadays the well-mannered motorist is the exception to the rule. Perhaps the situation calls for a "Be Kind to Other Drivers" campaign, otherwise, it may get completely out of hand. Road politeness is not only good manners, but good sense too. It takes the most cool-headed and good-tempered of drivers to resist the temptation to revenge when subjected to uncivilized behaviors. On the other hand, a little politeness goes a long way towards relieving the tensions of motoring. A friendly nod or a wave of acknowledgement in response to an act of politeness helps to create an atmosphere of goodwill and tolerance, which is so necessary in modern traffic conditions. But such acknowledgements of politeness are all too rare today. Many drivers nowadays don't even seem able to recognize politeness when they see it. However, improper politeness can also be dangerous. A typical example is the driver who waves a child across a crossing into the path of oncoming vehicles that may be unable to stop in time. The same goes for encouraging old ladies to cross the road wherever and whenever they care to. A veteran driver, whose manners are faultless, told me it would help if motorists learn to filter correctly into traffic streams one at a time without causing the total blockages (堵塞) that give rise to bad temper. Unfortunately, modern motorists can't even learn to drive, let alone be well-mannered on the road. Years ago the experts warned us that the car-ownership explosion would demand a lot more give-and-take from all road users. It is high time for all of us to take this message to heart.

判断题Migration is usually defined as "permanent or semi-permanent change of residence". However our concern is with movement between nations, not with internal migration within nations, although such movements often exceed international movements in volume. Today, the motives of people who move short distances are very similar to those of international migrants. Students of human migration speak of "push" and "pull" factors, which influence an individual's decision to move from one place to another. Push factors are associated with the place of origin. A push factor can be as simple and mild a matter as difficulty in finding a suitable job, or as traumatic as war, or severe famine. Obviously, refugees who leave their homes with guns pointed at their heads are motivated almost entirely by push factors (although pull factors do influence their choice of destination). Pull factors are those associated with the place of destination. Most often these are economic, such as better job opportunities or the availability of good land to farm. In general, pull factors add up to an apparently better chance for a good life and material well-being than is offered by the place of origin. When there is a choice between several attractive potential destinations, the deciding factor might be a non-economic consideration such as the presence of relatives, friends, or at least fellow countrymen already established in the new place who are willing to help the newcomers settle in. Besides push and pull factors, there are what the sociologists call "intervening obstacles". Even if push and (or) pull factors are very strong they still may be outweighed by intervening obstacles, such as the distance of the move, the trouble and cost of moving, the difficulty of entering the new country, and the problems likely to be encountered on arrival. The decision to move is also influenced by "personal factors" of the potential migrant. The prospect of packing up everything and moving to a new and perhaps very strange environment may appear interesting and challenging to an unmarried young man and appallingly difficult to a slightly older man with a wife arid small kids. Similarly, the need to learn a new language and customs may excite one person and frighten another. Regardless of why people move, migration of large numbers of people causes conflict. The United States and other western countries have experienced adjustment problems with each new wave of immigrants. It has usually taken several decades for each group to be accepted into the mainstream of society in the host country.

判断题 Tipping is a subject that has long interested and irritated me. Many people think that the word "tip" is an acronym for "To insure promptness." However, this is not possible, I think. Since the practice of tipping began in England in the Middle Ages, scholars have not been able to find any acronyms much earlier than the 20th century. Most scholars track the word "tip" back to the early 1600s, where it originated as criminal slang. It referred to inside information. Therefore, to give another criminal a tip was to give something valuable (information) The word gradually evolved to the point where, in the late 1700s, it meant to give a monetary gratuity(tip) to someone for service performed. That's where it stayed until the English immigrated to North America. In America, the three basic occupations that require tipping are waiters/waitresses, taxi drivers, and barbers. The standard tip is now between 15 and 20 percent of the bill, depending on the quality of service. Why these three particular services deserve this special treatment is a mystery to me. Why am I supposed to tip a waiter for bringing me food when I'm not expected to tip the flight attendant on an airplane for doing the same thing? Why am I supposed to tip a cab driver, but I'm not expected to tip the bus driver? Why am I supposed to tip the barber for cutting my hair but not the dentist for fixing my teeth? I have been a teacher for 39 years. No one has ever tipped me after a particularly successful class or lecture. The whole concept of tipping doesn't make any sense. I have heard that there are some exclusive and expensive restaurants in major cities in the US where the restaurant does not give the waiters any salary at all due to the large amounts of the tips. In fact, in some instances, I read that the waiters actually pay the restaurant a small fee for the opportunity to collect the large tips. Also, I was quite surprised to learn that there was actually a website devoted to tipping and related issues(http://www.tipping.org). Some of the invisible and illogical rules of this practice are close to ridiculous. The tipping problem in many European countries is solved by automatically adding a 15 percent gratuity to the bill, I prefer the Chinese solution: no tipping at all. While I understand why China, as a developing nation, has adopted many western customs, I hope the Chinese are wise enough to never start the unnecessary practice of tipping. The level of service in China is already good enough that it doesn't need anything to make it better.

判断题The most noticeable trend among media companies is vertical integration—an attempt to control several related aspects of the media business at once, each part helping the other. Besides publishing magazines and books, Time Warner, for example, owns Home Box Office (HBO), Warner movie studios, various cable TV systems throughout the United States and CNN as well. The Japanese company Matsushita owns MCA Records and Universal Studios and manufactures broadcast production equipment. To describe the financial status of today's media is also to talk about acquisitions (并购). The media are buying and selling each other in unprecedented numbers and forming media groups to position themselves in the marketplace to maintain and increase their profits. In 1986, the first time a broadcast network had been sold; two networks were sold that year— ABC and NBC. Media acquisitions have skyrocketed(剧增) since 1980 for two reasons. The first is that most big corporations today are publicly traded companies, which means that their stock is traded on one of the nation's stock exchanges. This makes acquisitions relatively easy. A media company that wants to buy a publicly owned company can buy that company's stock when the stock becomes available. The open availability of stock in these companies means that anybody with enough money can invest in the American media industries, which is exactly how Rupert Murdoch joined the media business. The second reason for the increase in media alliances is that beginning in 1980, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) gradually deregulated (除管制) the broadcast media. Before 1980, for example, the FCC allowed one company to own only five TV stations, five AM radio stations, and five FM radio stations; companies also were required to hold onto a station for three years before the station could be sold. The post-1980 FCC eliminated the three-year rule and raised the number of broadcast holdings allowed for one owner. This trend of media acquisitions is continuing throughout the 1990s, as changing technology expands the market for media products. The issue of media ownership is important. If only a few corporations direct the media industries in this country, the outlets for differing political viewpoints and innovative ideas could be limited.

判断题If I were asked to give what I consider the single most useful bit of advice for all humanity, it would be this: Expect trouble as an inevitable part of life and, when it comes, hold your head high, look it squarely in the eye and say, "I will be bigger than you. You can not defeat me." Then repeat to yourself the most comforting of all words. "This too shall pass." To forgive oneself in the face of a devastating experience is perhaps the most difficult of life's challenges. Most of us find it much easier to forgive others. In many instances we can't control what happens to us, but we can control our reactions to what happens to us. We can stay down for the count and be carried out of the ring or we can pull ourselves back to our feet. If we are victimized by others, we must refuse to give them the power to break our spirit, make us physically ill, perhaps even shorten our lives. Most doctors will tell you that worry, anxiety, tension and anger can make you sicker than a virus. The expression "nervous breakdown" suggested that nerves have broken down, but organically the nerves are healthy. The problem is purely emotional. A doctor on the staff of the Mayo Clinic has said the majority of patients in hospital beds today are there because of illnesses that were psycho-generated. This means the sickness was triggered by an unresolved problem. I believe in blind faith. I have known people who have suffered deep personal tragedies, and this faith has helped them. But I also believe in the efficacy of positive action to overcome grief. Time is a healer, but those who help time using it wisely and well make a more rapid adjustment. Grief, in part, is self-pity turned inside out. The widow who cries, "He was everything to me. How can I go on without him?" is crying for herself, not for him. The mourner who refuses to let go of his grief eventually isolated himself from his friends. The world may stop for a few hours, or perhaps a few days, to hold a hand or to wipe away a tear, but friends and relatives have problems of their own. Life goes on—and those who refuse to go on with it are left alone to wallow in their misery. The best prescription for a broken heart is activity. I don't mean plunging into a social whirl or running off on trips. Too many people who try to escape by doing just that succeed only in taking their troubles with them. The most useful kind of activity involves doing something to help others. I have told thousands of depressed people, "Enough of this breast-beating. No matter how bad things are with you, there is someone who is worse off—and you can help him." Most touching to me is the heroism, the courage and faith of the average people in the world. Often readers who write about a problem will add something about their personal lives. I am moved by the magnificent people who write such lines as "My husband lost his sight shortly after we married, but we manage beautifully." or, "I've had two operations for cancer, but I know I'll be able to attend my son's graduation in June and I'm so thankful for that." Decide whether the statements are True or False according to the passage.

多选题居室装修设计应重点考虑( )等方面的因素。

多选题巴兰钦具有深厚的音乐素养，其创作的作品充满了音乐感和诗意，被称为( )。

多选题流行色的主要作用在于( )。

填空题(Low-level) cumulus clouds, mid-level altostratus clouds, and high-altitude cirrus clouds all (conveys) (information about) (their) atmospheric realms.A. Low-levelB. conveysC. information aboutD. their

填空题Text 3 Modern liberal opinion is sensitive to problems of restriction of freedom and abuse of power. Indeed, many hold that a man can be injured only by violating his will, but this view is much too narrow. It fails to recognize the great dangers we shall face in the uses of biomedical technology that stems from an excess of freedom, from the unrestrained exercise of will. In my view, our greatest problems will be voluntary self-degradation, or willing dehumanization, as the unintended yet often inescapable consequence of sternly and successfully pursuing our humanization goals. Certain desires and perfected medical technologies have already had some dehumanizing consequences. Improved methods of resuscitation (复活) have made possible heroic efforts to "save" the severely ill and injured. Yet these efforts are sometimes only partly successful; they succeed in rescuing individuals but these individuals may have severe brain damage and be capable of only a less-than-human, vegetating existence. Such patients found with increasing frequency in the intensive care units of university hospitals, have been denied a death with dignity. Families are forced to suffer seeing their loved ones so reduced and are made to bear the burden of a prolonged "death watch". Even the ordinary methods of treating disease and prolonging life have changed the context in which men die. Fewer and fewer people die in the familiar surroundings of home or in the company of family and friends. At that time of life when there is perhaps the greatest need for human warmth and comfort, the dying patient is kept company by cardiac (心脏的) pacemakers and defibrillators, respirators, aspirators, oxygenators, catheters (导尿管) and his intravenous (静脉的) drip. Ties to the community of men are replaced by attachments to an assemblage of machines. This loneliness, however, is not confined to the dying patient in the hospital bed. Consider the increasing number of old people still alive thanks to medical progress; as a group, the elderly are the most alienated members of our society, not yet ready for the world of the dead, not deemed fit for the world of the living, they are shunted aside. More and more of them spend the extra years medicine has given them in "homes for senior citizens", in hospitals for chronic diseases, and in nursing homes--waiting for the end. We have learned how to increase their years, but we have not learned how to help them enjoy their days; yet we continue to bravely and sternly push back the frontiers against death. [A] prevent patients from dying honourably. [B] the ending life lonely in nursing homes. [C] originates from an excess of freedom and free exercise of will. [D] connections to the community of men. [E] are shunted aside and ignored. [F] by improved medical methods and equipment. [G] in the familiar surroundings of family and friends.

填空题(The university hospital's) research department (is looking for) volunteers (who) have heart disease, have undergone an open-heart surgery, have had angioplasty (血管硬化), (or a heart attack was experienced).A. The university hospital'sB. is looking forC. whoD. or a heart attack was experienced

填空题(There was) a (tremendous) appetite for new films for the early moving picture machines called nickelodeons, and film-makers sought (rewarded) careers (in this) new medium. A. There was B. tremendous C. rewarded D. in this

填空题A. Gathering the informationB. Cigarettes produced to match an imageC. Changing attitudes allow new marketing tacticsD. Background to the researchE. A public uproar is avoidedF. The innovative move to written advertsG. A century of uninhibited smoking In 1992, the most recent year for which data are available, the US tobacco industry spent $5 billion on domestic marketing. That figure represents a huge increase from the approximate ￡250-million budget in 1971, when tobacco advertising was banned from television and radio. The current expenditure translates to about $75 for every adult smoker, or to $4,500 for every adolescent who became a smoker that year. This apparently high cost to attract a new smoker is very likely recouped over the average 25 years that this teen will smoke. 41. ______ In the first half of this century, leaders of the tobacco companies boasted that innovative mass-marketing strategies built the industry. Recently, however, the tobacco business has maintained that its advertising is geared to draw established smokers to particular brands. But public health advocates insist that such advertising plays a role in generating new demand, with adolescents being the primary target. To explore the issue, we examined several marketing campaigns undertaken over the years and correlated them with the ages smokers say they began their habit. We find that, historically, there is considerable evidence that such campaigns led to an increase in cigarette smoking among adolescents of the targeted group. 42. ______ National surveys collected the ages at which people started smoking. The 1955 Current Population Survey (CPS) was the first to query respondents for this information, although only summary data survive. Beginning in 1970, however, the National Health Interview Surveys (NHIS) included this question in some polls. Answers from all the surveys were combined to produce a sample of more than 165,000 individuals. Using a respondent's age at the time of the survey and the reported age of initiation (age they started smoking), the year the person began smoking could be determined. Dividing the number of adolescents (defined as those 12 to 17 years old) who started smoking during a particular interval by the number who were ~'eligible" to begin at the start of the interval set the initiation rate for that group. 43. ______ Mass-marketing campaigns began as early as the 1880s, which boosted tobacco consumption sixfold by 1900. Much of the rise was attributed to a greater number of people smoking cigarettes, as opposed to using cigars, pipes, snuff or chewing tobacco. Marketing strategies included painted billboards and an extensive distribution of coupons~ which a recipient could redeem for free cigarettes ... Some brands included soft-porn pictures of women in the packages. Such tactics inspired outcry from educational leaders concerned about their corrupting influence on teenage boys. Thirteen percent of the males surveyed in 1955 who reached adolescence between 1890 and 1910 commenced smoking by 18 years of age, compared with almost no females. 44. ______ The power of targeted advertising is more apparent if one considers the men born between 1890 and 1899. In 1912, when many of these men were teenagers, the R.J. Reynolds company launched the Camel brand of cigarettes with a revolutionary approach Every city in the country was bombarded with print advertising. According to the 1955 CPS, initiation by age 18 for males in this group jumped to 21.6 percent, a two thirds increase over those born before 1890. The NHIS initiation rate also reflected this change. For adolescent males it went up from 2.9 percent between 1910 and 1912 to 4.9 percent between 1918 and 1921. 45. ______ It was not until the mid-1920s that social mores permitted cigarette advertising to focus on women In 1926 a poster depicted women imploring smokers of Chesterfield cigarettes to "Blow Some My Way". The most successful crusade, however, was for Lucky Strikes, which urged women to "Reach for a Lucky instead of a Sweet". The 1955 CPS data showed that 7 percent of the women who were adolescents during the mid-1920s had started smoking by age 18, compared with only 2 percent in the preceding generation of female adolescents. Initiation rates from the NHIS data for adolescent girls were observed to increase threefold, from 0.6 percent between 1922 and 1925 to 1.8 percent between 1930 and 1933. In contrast, rates for males rose only slightly.