阅读理解The Fine Art of Marital

阅读理解Beauty has always been regarded as something

阅读理解Directions: In this section there are reading passages followed by multiple-choice questions. Read the passages and then mark your answers on your answer sheet.Passage twoOf the thousands of different kinds of animals that exist in the world man has learned to make friends with an enormous number. Some are pets, and offer him companionship; some give him protection, and some do hard work which man cannot do for himself. Dogs, which serve man in all three capacities, are found in various species in all countries of the world. The Husky can live in the cold polar regions, and the Saluki is at home in the hottest parts of Central Africa. The inhabitants of certain countries are dependent for their very lives on the camel. In the West Indies the little donkey, strong and sure-footed, carrying heavy loads even in mountainous places, is a familiar sight.Trained and tamed for many generations, domestic animals are not accustomed to wandering in search of food and shelter. They look to their masters to provide for their needs, and as long as these are supplied, they are content to do what their masters require.All domestic animals need proper food. It must be suitable for them, sufficient in quantity, fresh and clean. Some people feed a pet dog or cat on odds and ends of table scraps, and then wonder why the animal seems listless and dull. The quantity of food depends on the size of the animal and the amount of exercise it takes. Overfeeding is as bad as underfeeding. Containers for food and water must be washed regularly if the animal is to maintain good health.Cats and dogs do not need a place of their own, although a very big dog is better off in a doghouse than in the house. The cat, an independent creature, is very good at finding the safest and most comfortable spot when she wants to take a nap. But cows and horses and similar animals must have proper stables, clean, dry and well ventilated.Even well cared-for animals may sometimes fall ill. If this happens, the wise master seeks the best advice he can get. All sorts of medicines and treatments are available for sick animals, and in some countries organizations exist to provide them free or at a cheap price. Useful, friendly, hardworking animals deserve to have some time, money and attention spent on their health.

阅读理解Section A1． The disappointing results of many conventional road transport projects in Africa led some experts to rethink the strategy by which rural transport problems were to be tackled at the beginning of the 1980s. A request for help in improving the availability of transport within the remote Makete District of south western Tanzania presented the opportunity to try a new approach.2． The concept of integrated rural transport’ was adopted in the task of examining the transport needs of the rural households in the district. The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain access to essential goods and services through an improved rural transport system. The underlying assumption was that the time saved would be used instead for activities that would improve the social and economic development of the communities. The Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project (MIRTP) started in 1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and was coordinated with the help of the Tanzanian government. Section B 1． When the project began, Makete District was virtually totally isolated during the rainy season. The regional road was in such bad shape that access to the main towns was impossible for about three months of the year. Road traffic was extremely rare within the district, and alternative means of transport were restricted to donkeys in the north of the district. People relied primarily on the paths, which were slippery and dangerous during the rains. 2． Before solutions could be proposed, the problems had to be understood. Little was known about the transport demands of the rural households, so Phase 1, between December 1985 and December 1987, focused on research. The socio-economic survey of more than 400 households in the district indicated that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a day on transporting themselves and their goods, a figure which seemed extreme but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural areas in Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot; 80% was within the locality; and 70% was related to the collection of water and firewood and travelling to grinding mills. Section C 1． Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were identified which might reduce the time and burden. During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of approaches were implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to transport. 2． An improvement of the road network was considered necessary to ensure the import and export of goods to the district. These improvements were carried out using methods that were heavily dependent on labor. In addition to the improvement of roads, these methods provided training in the operation of a mechanical workshop and bus and truck services. However, the difference from the conventional approach was that this time consideration was given to local transport needs outside the road network. 3． Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts up and down the hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk and made the journey on foot even more arduous. It made sense to improve the paths by building steps, handrails and footbridges. 4． It was uncommon to find means of transport that were more efficient than walking but less technologically advanced than motor vehicles. The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and the lack of available spare parts. Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were used by a few households in the northern part of the district. MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the inhabitants of Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could afford and what they were willing to accept. After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of donkeys—a donkey costs less than a bicycle—and the introduction of a locally manufacturable wheelbarrow. Section D 1． At the end of Phase II, it was clear that the selected approaches to Makete’ s transport problems had had different degrees of success. Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the refinement and institutionalization of these activities. 2． The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had helped make the district centre accessible throughout the year. Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily available at the market, and prices did not fluctuate as much as they had done before. 3． Paths and secondary roads were improved only at the request of communities who were willing to participate in construction and maintenance. However, the improved paths impressed the inhabitants, and requests for assistance greatly increased soon after only a few improvements had been completed. 4． The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport services were not very successful because most of the motorized vehicles in the district broke down and there were no resources to repair them. Even the introduction of low-cost means of transport was difficult because of the general poverty of the district. The locally manufactured wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all but a few of the households. Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut production time and costs. Other local carpenters have been trained in the new design so that they can respond to requests. Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow which costs around 5000 Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20) in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most people. 5． Donkeys, which were imported to the district, have become more common and contribute, in particular, to the transportation of crops and goods to market. Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer households but, with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become more affordable. Meanwhile, local initiatives are promoting the renting out of the existing donkeys. 6． It should be noted, however, that a donkey, which at 20, 000 Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an average household’ s income over half a year. This clearly illustrates the need for supplementary measures if one wants to assist the rural poor Section E 1． It would have been easy to criticize the MIRTP for using in the early phases a ‘ top-down’ approach, in which decisions were made by experts and officials before being handed down to communities, but it was necessary to start the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district. It would have been difficult to respond to the requests of villagers and other rural inhabitant without the support and understanding of district authorities. Section F 1． Today, nobody in the district argues about the importance of improved paths and inexpensive means of transport. But this is the result of dedicated work over a long period, particularly from the officers in charge of community development. They played an essential role in raising awareness and interest among the rural communities. 2． The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start. The experiences from Makete will help in this initiative, and Makete District will act as a reference for future work.Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-J, below.

阅读理解I am one of the many city people who are always saying that given the choice we would prefer to live in the country away from the dirt and noise of a large city. I have managed to convince myself that if it weren’t for my job I would immediately head out for the open spaces and go back to nature in some sleepy village buried in the country. But how realistic is the dream?Cities can be frightening places. The majority of the population lives in massive tower blocks, noisy, dirty and impersonal. The sense of belonging to a community tends to disappear when you live fifteen floors up. All you can see from your window is sky, or other blocks of flats. Children become aggressive and nervous—cooped up at home all day, with nowhere to play; their mothers feel isolated from the rest of the world. Strangely enough, whereas in the past the inhabitants of one street all knew each other, nowadays people on tire same floor in tower blocks don’t even say hello to each other.Country life, on the other hand, differs from this kind of isolated existence in that a sense of community generally binds the inhabitants of small villages together. People have the advantage of knowing that there is always someone to turn to when they need help. But country life has disadvantages too. While it is true that you may be among friends in a village, it is also true that you are cut off from the exciting and important events that take place in cities. There’s little possibility of going to a new show or the latest movie. Shopping becomes a major problem, and for anything slightly out of the ordinary you have to go on an expedition to the nearest large town. The city-dweller who leaves for the country is often oppressed by a sense of unbearable stillness and quietness.What, then, is the answer? The country has the advantage of peace and quiet, but suffers from the disadvantage of being cut off; the city breeds a feeling of isolation, and constant noise batters the senses. But one of its main advantages is that you are at the centre of things; and that life doesn’t come to an end at half past nine at night. Some people have found(or rather bought) a compromise between the two: they have expressed their preference for the “quiet life” by leaving the suburbs and moving to villages within commuting distance of large cities. They generally have about as much sensitivity as the plastic flowers they leave behind—they are polluted with strange ideas about change and improvement which they force on to the unwilling original inhabitants of the village.What then of my dreams of leaning on a cottage gate and murmuring “morning” to the locals as they pass by? I’m keen on the idea, but you see there’s my cat, Toby. I’m not at all sure that he would take to all that fresh air and exercise in the long grass. I mean, can you see him mixing with all those hearty males down the farm? No, he would rather have the electric imitation-coal fire any evening.

阅读理解Directions: In this section there are reading passagesfollowed by multiple-choice questions. Read the passagesand then mark your answers on your answer sheet.Passage AOf all the physiological differences in human sleepcompared with wakefulness that have been discovered in thelast decade, changes in respiratory control are mostdramatic. Not only are there differences in the level ofthe functioning of respiratory systems, there are evenchanges in how they function. Movements of the rib cagefor breathing are reduced dating sleep, making thecontractions of the diaphragm more important. Yet becauseof the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weightagainst the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for thediaphragm to do its job. However, there are many otherChanges that affect respiration when asleep.To better understand breathing during sleep, it is,however, helpful to first understand how respiration worksin general. During wakefulness, breathing is controlled bytwo interacting systems. The first is an automatic,metabolic system whose control is centered in the brainstem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate and depthin order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2)and oxygen (02) , and the acid-base ratio in the Need.The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Itscontrol center is based in the forebrain, and it regulatesbreathing for use m speech, singing, sighing, and so on.It is capable of ignoring or overriding the automatic,metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern ofbreathing.During NREM (the phase of sleep in which there is no rapideye movement) breathing becomes deeper and more regular,but there is also a decrease in the breathing rate,resulting in less air being exchanged overall. This occursbecause during NREM sleep the automatic, metabolic systemhas exclusive control over breathing and the body usesless oxygen and produces less carbon dioxide. Also, duringsleep the automatic metabolic system is less responsive tocarbon dioxide levels and oxygen levels in the blood. Twothings result from these changes in breathing control thatoccur during sleep. First, there may be a brief cessationor reduction of breathing when falling asleep as thesleeper waxes and wanes between sleep and wakefulness andtheir differing control mechanisms. Second, once sleep isfully obtained, there is an increase of carbon dioxide anda decrease of oxygen in the blood that persists duringNREM.But that is not all that changes. During all phases ofsleep, several changes in the air passages have beenobserved. It takes twice as much effort to breathe duringsleep because of greater resistance to airflow in theairways and changes in the efficiency of the muscles usedfor breathing. Some of the muscles that help keep theupper airway open when breathing tend to become morerelaxed during sleep, especially during REM (the phase ofsleep in which there is rapid eye movement) . Without thismuscular action, inhaling is like sucking air balloon thenarrow passages tend to Collapse. Also there is a regularcycle of change in resistance between the two sides of thenose. If something blocks the “good” side, such ascongestion from allergies or a cold, then resistanceincreases dramatically. Coupled with these factors is theloss of the complex interactions among the muscles thatcan change the route of airflow from nose to mouth.Other respiratory regulating mechanisms apparently ceasefunctioning during sleep. For example, during wakefulnessthere is an immediate, automatic, adaptive increase inbreathing effort when inhaling is made more difficult(such as breathing through a restrictive face mask) . Thisreflexive adjustment is totally absent during NREM sleep.Only after several inadequate breaths under suchconditions, resulting in the considerable elevation ofcarbon dioxide and reduction of oxygen in the blood, isbreathing effort adjusted. Finally, the coughing reflex inreaction to irritants in the airway produces not a coughduring sleep but a cessation of breathing. If theirritation is severe enough, a sleeping person willarouse, clear the airway, then resume breathing and likelyreturn to sleep.Additional breathing changes occur during REM sleep thatare even more dramatic than the changes that occur duringNREM. The amount of air exchanged is even lower in REMthan NREM because, although breathing is more rapid in REMis also more irregular, with brief episodes of shallowbreathing or absence of breathing. In addition, breathingduring REM depends much more on the action of thediaphragm and much less on rib cage action.

阅读理解For each question below, choose the answer that

阅读理解Reading Passage2 has seven paragraphs, A-H. Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A and C-H from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-xi, on your answer sheet.14． Paragraph A15． Paragraph C16． Paragraph D17． Paragraph E18． Paragraph F19． Paragraph G20． Paragraph HMAKING EVERY DROP COUNTA. The history of human civilization is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. B. During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40% of the world’ s food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. C. Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the world’ s population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10, 000 to 20, 000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. D. The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardizing human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes—often with little warning or compensation—to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20% of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. E. At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority—ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organizations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water- related illness. F. Fortunately—and unexpectedly—the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. G. What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three- quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3. 5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) —almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. H. On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget.

阅读理解Passage ThreeHunting is at best a precarious way of procuring food, even when the diet is supplemented with seeds and fruits. Not long after the last Ice Age, around 7, 000 B. C. (during the Neolithic period) , some hunters and gatherers began to rely chiefly on agriculture for their sustenance. Others continued the old pastoral and nomadic ways. Indeed, agriculture itself evolved over the course of time, and Neolithic peoples had long known how to grow crops. The real transformation of human life occurred when huge numbers of people began to rely primarily and permanently on the grain they grew and the animals they domesticated.Agriculture made possible a more stable and secure life. With it Neolithic peoples flourished, fashioning an energetic, creative era. They were responsible for many fundamental inventions and innovations that the modem world takes for granted First, obviously, is systematic agriculture—that is, the reliance of Neolithic peoples on agriculture as their primary, not merely subsidiary, source of food. Thus they developed the primary economic activity of the entire ancient world and the basis of all modem life. With the settled routine of Neolithic fanners came the evolution of towns and eventually cities. Neolithic fanners usually raised more food than they could consume, and their surpluses permitted larger, healthier populations. Population growth in turn created an even greater reliance on settled farming, as only systematic agriculture could sustain the increased numbers of people. Since surpluses o food could also be bartered for other commodities, the Neolithic era witnessed the beginnings of large-scale exchanged of goods. In time the increasing complexity of Neolithic societies led to the development of writing, prompted by the need to keep records and later by the urge to chronicle experiences, learning and beliefs.The transition to settled life also had a profound impact on the family. The shared needs and pressures that encourage extended-family ties are less prominent in settled than in nomadic societies. Bonds to the extended family weakened. In towns and cities, the nuclear family was more dependent on its immediate neighbors than on kinfolk.

阅读理解Reading Passage 3 has six sections, A-F. Choose the correct heading for sections B, C, E and F from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-xi, in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.List of HeadingsExample: Section A (vi)Section B ( )Section C ( )Section E ( )Section F ( )

阅读理解About a century ago, the Swedish physical scientist Arrhenius proposed a low of classical chemistry that relates chemical reaction rate to temperature. According to his equation, chemical reactions are increasingly unlikely to occur as temperature approaches absolute zero, and at absolute zero, reactions stop. However, recent experiment evidence reveals that although the Arrhenius equation is generally accurate in describing the kind of chemical reaction that occurs at relatively high temperature, at temperatures closer to zero a quantum- mechanical effect known as tunneling comes into play; this effect accounts for chemical reactions that are forbidden by the principles of classical chemistry. Specifically, entire molecules can tunnel through the barriers of repulsive forces from other molecules and chemically react even though these molecules do not have sufficient energy, according to classical chemistry, to overcome the repulsive barrier.The rate of any chemical reaction, regardless of the temperature at which it takes place, usually depends on a very important characteristic known as its activation energy. Any molecule can be imagined to reside at the bottom of a so-called potential well of energy. Some chemical reaction corresponds to the transition of a molecule from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another. In classical chemistry, such a transition can be accomplished only by going over the potential barrier between the well, the height of which remain constant and is called the activation energy of the reaction. In tunneling, the reacting molecules tunnel from the bottom of one to the bottom of another well without having to rise over the harrier between the two wells. Recently researchers have developed the concept of tunneling temperature: the temperature below which tunneling transitions greatly outnumber Arrhenius transitions, and classical mechanics gives way to its quantum counterpart.This tunneling phenomenon at very low temperatures suggested my hypothesis about a cold prehistory of life: formation of rather complex organic molecules in the deep cold of outer space, where temperatures usually reach only a few degrees Kelvin. Cosmic rays might trigger the synthesis of simple molecules, such as interstellar formaldehyde, in dark clouds of interstellar dust. Afterward complex organic molecules would be formed, slowly but surely, by means of tunneling. After I offered my hypothesis, Hoyle and Wickramashinghe argued that molecules of interstellar formaldehyde have indeed evolved into stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch. Their conclusions, although strongly disputed, have generated excitement among investigators such as myself who are proposing that the galactic clouds are the places where the prebiological evolution of compounds necessary to life occurred.

阅读理解Directions: This part consists of two sections. In Section A, there are three passages followed by a total of 20 multiple-choice questions. In Section B, there are two passages followed by a total of 10 short-answer questions. Read the passages and write your answers on the Answer Sheet.Passage 3In the eighteenth century, Japan’s feudal overlords, from the shogun to the humblest samurai, found themselves under financial stress. In part, this stress can be attributed to the overlords’ failure to adjust to a rapidly expanding economy, but the stress was also due to factors beyond the overlords’ control. Concentration of the samurai in castle- towns had acted as a stimulus to trade. Commercial efficiency, in turn, had put temptations in the way of buyers. This left the shoguns only commerce as a potential source of government income.Most of the country’s wealth, or so it seemed, was finding its way into the hands of city merchants. It appeared reasonable that they should contribute part of that revenue to ease the shogun’s burden of financing the state. A means of obtaining such revenue was soon found by levying forced loans, known as goyo-kin; although these werenot taxes in the strict sense, since they were irregular in timing and arbitrary in amount, they were high in yield. Unfortunately, they pushed up prices. Thus, regrettably, the Tokugawa shoguns’ search for solvency for the government made it increasingly difficult for individual Japanese who lived on fixed stipends to make ends meet.

阅读理解These days we hear a lot of nonsense about the “great classless society” . The idea that the twentieth century is the age of the common man has become one of the great clichés of our time. The same old arguments are put forward in evidence. Here are some of them: monarchy as a system of government has been completely discredited. The monarchies that survive have been deprived of all political power. Inherited wealth has been savagely reduced by taxation and, in time, the great fortunes will disappear altogether. In a number of countries the victory has been complete. The people rule; the great millennium has become a political reality. But has it? Close examination doesn’ t bear out the claim.It is a fallacy to suppose that all men are equal and that society will be leveled out if you provide everybody with the same educational opportunities. (It is debatable whether you can ever provide everyone with the same educational opportunities, but that is another question. ) The fact is that nature dispenses brains and ability with a total disregard for the principle of equality. The old rules of the jungle, survival of the fittest, and might is right are still with us. The spread of education has destroyed the old class system and created a new one. Rewards are based on merit. For aristocracy “read meritocracy” ; in other respects, society remains unaltered: the class system is rigidly maintained.Genuine ability, animal cunning, skill, the knack of seizing opportunities, all bring material rewards. And what is the first thing people do when they become rich? They use their wealth to secure the best possible opportunities for their children, to give them a good start in life. For all the lip service we pay to the idea of equality, we do not consider this wrong in the western world. Private schools which offer unfair advantages over state schools are not banned because one of the principles in a democracy is that people should be free to choose how they will educate their children. In this way, the new meritocracy can perpetuate itself to a certain extent: an able child from a wealthy home can succeed far more rapidly than his poorer counterpart. Wealth is also used indiscriminately to further political ends. It would be almost impossible to become the leader of a democracy without massive financial backing. Money is as powerful a weapon as ever it was.In societies wholly dedicated to the principle of social equality, privileged private education is forbidden. But even here people are rewarded according to their abilities. In fact, so great is the need for skilled workers that the least able may be neglected. Bright children are carefully and expensively trained to become future rulers. In the end, all political ideologies boil down to the same thing: class divisions persist whether you are ruled by a feudal king or an educated peasant.Use the information from the above passage to answer the following questions, Try 1o be brief and to the point in your answering.

阅读理解Consumers are to be presented with two rival new year advertising campaigns as the Food Standards Agency goes public in its battle with the industry over the labeling of unhealthy foods.The Guardian has learned that the FSA will launch a series of 10-second television adverts in January telling shoppers how to follow a red, amber and green traffic light labeling system on the front of food packs, which is designed to tackle Britain’ s obesity epidemic.The campaign is a direct response to a concerted attempt by leading food manufacturers and retailers, including Kellogg’ s and Tesco, to derail the system. The industry fears that traffic lights would demonize entire categories of foods and could seriously damage the market for those that are fatty, salty or high in sugar.The UK market for breakfast cereals is worth £1. 27bn a year and the manufacturers fear it will be severely dented if red light labels are put on packaging drawing attention to the fact that the majority are high in salt and/or sugar.The industry is planning a major marketing campaign for a competing labeling system which avoids color-coding in favor of information about the percentage of “guideline daily amounts” (GDAs) of fat, salt and sugar contained in their products.The battle for the nation’ s diet comes as new rules on television advertising come into force in January which will bar adverts for unhealthy foods from commercial breaks during programmes aimed at children. Sources at the TV regulators are braced for a legal challenge from the industry and have described the lobbying efforts to block any new ad ban or color-coded labeling as “the most ferocious we’ ve ever experienced” .Ofcom’ s chief executive, Ed Richards, said: “We are prepared to face up to any legal action from the industry, but we very much hope it will not be necessary. ” The FSA said it was expecting an onslaught from the industry in January. Senior FSA officials said the manufacturers’ efforts to undermine its proposals on labeling could threaten the agency’ s credibility.Terrence Collis, FSA director of communications, dismissed claims that the proposals were not based on science. “We have some of the most respected scientists in Europe, both within the FSA and in our independent advisory committees. It is unjustified and nonsensical to attack the FSA’ s scientific reputation and to try to undermine its credibility. ”The FSA is understood to have briefed its ad agency, United, before Christmas, and will aim to air ads that are “non-confrontational, humorous and factual” as a counterweight to industry’ s efforts about the same time. The agency, however, will have a tiny fraction of the budget available to the industry.Gavin Neath, chairman of Unilever UK and president of the Food and Drink Federation, has said that the industry has made enormous progress but could not accept red “stop” signs on its food.Alastair Sykes, chief executive of Nestlé UK, said that under the FSA proposals all his company’ s confectionery and most of its cereals would score a red. “Are we saying people shouldn’ t eat confectionery? We’ re driven by consumers and what they want, and much of what we do has been to make our products healthier, ” he said.Chris Wermann, director of communications at Kellogg’ s, said: “In principle we could never accept traffic light labeling. ”The rival labeling scheme introduced by Kellogg’ s, Danone, Unilever, Nestlé, Kraft and Tesco and now favored by 21 manufacturers, uses an industry-devised system based on identifying GDAs of key nutrients. Tesco says it has tested both traffic lights and GDA labels in its stores and that the latter increased sales of healthier foods.But the FSA said it could not live with this GDA system alone because it was “not scientific” or easy for shoppers to understand at a glance.

阅读理解Directions: In this section, there is a short passagefollowed by 5 questions or unfinished statements. Read thepassage carefully and then give brief answers to thequestions or to complete the unfinished statements.Passage 8Women who apply for jobs in middle or senior managementhave a higher success rate than men, according to anemployment survey. But of course far fewer or they applyfor these positions. The study, by recruitment consultantsNB Sections, shows that while one in six men who appear oninterview shortlists get jobs, the figure rises to one infour for women.Reasons for higher success rates among women are difficultto isolate. One explanation suggested is that if a womancandidate manages to get on a shortlist, then she hasprobably already proved herself to be an exceptionalcandidate. Dr. Marx said that when women apply forpositions they tend to be better qualified than their malecounterparts but are more selective and conservative intheir job search. Women tend to research thoroughly beforeapplying for positions or attending interviews. Men, inthe other hand, seem to rely on their ability to sellthemselves and to convince employers that any shortcomingsthey have will not prevent them from doing a good job.Managerial and executive progress made by women isconfirmed by the annual survey of boards of directorscarried out by Korn nternational. This year the surveyshows a doubling of the number of women serving as non-executive directors compared with the previous year.However, progress remains painfully slow and there werestill only 18 posts filled by women out of a total of 345non-executive positions surveyed. Hilary Sears, a partnerwith Korn/Ferry, said, Women have raised the level ofgrades we are employed in but we have still not brokenthrough barriers to the top.In Europe a recent feature of corporate life in therecession has been the de-layering of managementstructures. Sears said that this has halted progress forwomen in as much as de-layering has taken place eitherwhere women are working in layers they aspire to. Searsalso noted a positive trend from the recession, which hasbeen the growing number of women who have stared up ontheir own.In business as a whole, there are a number of factorsencouraging the prospect of greater equality in theworkforce. Demographic trends suggest that the number ofwomen going into employment is steadily increasing. Inaddition a far greater number of women are now passingthrough higher education, making them better qualified tomove into management position. Organizations such as theEuropean Women’s Management Development Network provide arange of opportunities for women to enhance their skillsand contacts.However, Ariane Antal, director of the InternationalInstitute for Organizational Change of Archamps in France,said that there is only anecdotal evidence of changes inrecruitment patterns. And she said. it’s still so hardfor women to even get onto shortlists--there are so manyhurdles and barriers. Antal agreed that there have beensome positive signs but said, Until there is a beliefamong employers, until they value the difference, nothingwill change.

阅读理解A contract is an agreement which is enforceable by law. It can be long or short, formal or informal, simple or complicated, and verbal or written. Without a contract or agreement to bind the contracting parties, any international business or transaction would be impossible. Long age, people exchanged promises in making bargains and binding the conduct of others. This exchange of promises came to be known as agreement and became more and more important in the fields of business. A promise or agreement is reached as a result of the process of offer and acceptance. When an agreement is reached, a contract is formed. Once a contract is officially signed by the concerned parties, it creates legal obligations in the sense of law.A contract is the only document between the parties to which they may refer for clarification of mutual responsibilities, it should not be viewed as merely a document that initiates transaction and then filed and forgotten by the contracting parties. It must be drafted with an awareness of the background of the law in which the transaction takes place. It is proper to obtain legal advice as to the best set of contractual terms appropriate to the product and type of business.Though mast of the contracts have many provisions in common, each is different from the others owing to the nature of the goods, Whether we are dealing with a long or pro printed form of the contract, there are certain key provisions that every contract should contain to avoid ambiguity and possible future conflicts. Whether to include other specific provisions depends on the type of goods, shipping and insurance complexities, and degree of trust and mutual confidence existing between buyer and seller.

阅读理解Passage 1Larry Page should have been in a good mood. It was the fall of 2007, and Google’ s cofounder was in the middle of a five-day tour of his company^ European operations in Zurich, London, Oxford, and Dublin. The trip had been fun, a chance to get a ground-floor look at Google’ s ever- expanding empire. But this week had been particularly exciting, for reasons that had nothing to do with Europe; Google was planning a major investment in Face book, the hottest new company in Silicon Valley.Originally Google had considered acquiring Face book—a prospect that held no interest for Face book’ s executives —but an investment was another enticing option, aligning the Internet’ s two most important companies. Face book was more than a fast-growing social network. It was, potentially, an enormous source of personal data. Internet users behaved differently on Face book than anywhere else online: They used their real names, connected with their real friends, linked to their real email addresses, and shared their real thoughts, tastes, and news. Google, on the other hand, knew relatively little about most of its users other than their search histories and some browsing activity.But now, as Page took his seat on the Google jet for the two-hour flight from Zurich to London, something appeared to be wrong. He looked annoyed, one of his fellow passengers recalls. It turned out that he had just received word that the deal was off. Microsoft, Google Js sworn enemy, would be making the investment instead—$240 million for a 1. 6 percent stake in the company, meaning that Redmond valued Face book at an astonishing $15 billion.As the 767 took off, Page tersely but calmly shared the news with the others on the plane and answered their questions for about 15 minutes. “Larry was clearly, clearly unhappy about it/ the passenger says.Page soon got over it, but Face book’ s rejection was still a blow to Google; it had never lost a deal this big and this publicly. But according to Face bookers involved in the transaction, Mountain View never had much of a chance—all things being equal, Microsoft was always the favored partner. Google’ s bid was used primarily as a stalking horse, a tool to amp up the bidding. Face book executives weren t leaping at the chance to join with Google; they preferred to conquer it. 4CWe never liked those guys/5 says one former Face book engineer. “We all had that audacity, Anything Google does, we can do better/ No one talked about MySpace or the other social networks. We just talked about Google. ”Today， the Google-Face book rivalry isn’ t just going strong， it has evolved into a full-blown battle over the future of the Internet—its structure, design, and utility. For the last decade or so, the Web has been defined by Google’ s algorithms—rigorous and efficient equations that parse practically every byte of online activity to build a dispassionate atlas of the online world. Face book CEO Mark Zuckerberg envisions a more personalized, humanized Web, where our network of friends, colleagues, peers, and family is our primary source of information, just as it is offline. In Zuckerberg s vision, users will query this “social graph” to find a doctor， the best camera, or someone to hire—rather than tapping the cold mathematics of a Google search. It is a complete rethinking of how we navigate the online world, one that places Face book right at the center. In other words, right where Google is now.All this brave talk might seem easy to dismiss as the swagger of an arrogant upstart. After all, being Google is a little like being heavyweight champion of the world— everyone wants a shot at your title. But over the past year, Face book has gone from glass-jawed flyweight to legitimate contender. It has become one of the most popular online destinations. More than 200 million people —about one-fifth of all Internet users—have Face book accounts. They spend an average of 20 minutes on the site every day. Face book has stolen several well-known Google employees, from COO Sheryl Sandburg to chef Josef Desimone; at least 9 percent of its staff used to work for the search giant. And since last December, Face book has launched a series of ambitious initiatives, designed to make the social graph an even more integral part of a user’ s online experience. Even some Googlers concede that Face book represents a growing threat. Eventually, we are going to collide, ” one executive says.It is remarkable that the most powerful company on the Web would feel threatened by one that has yet to turn a profit. (Last year, one insider estimates, Face book burned through $75 million plus the $275 million in revenue it brought in; Google made $4. 2 billion on an astounding $15. 8 billion in net revenue. ) And even Face book executives concede that Google has secured an insurmountable lead in search advertising—those little text ads that pop up next to search results—which accounts for about 90 percent of Google’ s net revenue. But they say they are going after an even bigger market: the expensive branding campaigns that so far have barely ventured online. Once, Google hoped an alliance with Face book would help attract those huge ad budgets. Now, instead of working together to reach the promised land of online brand advertising, Face book and Google are racing to see who can get there first.Like typical trash-talking youngsters, Face book sources argue that their competition is old and out of touch. Google is not representative of the future of technology in any way one Face book veteran says. Face book is an advanced communications network enabling myriad communication forms. It almost doesn’ t make sense to compare them. ”FACE BOOK’ S 4-Step Plan for Online DominationMark Zuckerberg has never thought of his company as a mere social network. He and his team are in the middle of a multiyear campaign to change how the Web is organized— with Face book at the center. Here’ s how they hope to pull it off.(1)Build critical mass In the eight months ending in April, Face book has doubled in size to 200 million members, who contribute 4 billion pieces of info, 850 million photos, and 8 million videos every month. The result: a second Internet, one that includes users’ most personal data and resides entirely on Face book’ s servers. (2) Redefine search Face book thinks its members will turn to their friends— rather than Google’ s algorithms—to navigate the Web. It already drives an eyebrow-raising amount of traffic to outside sites, and that will only increase once Face book Search allows users to easily explore one another’ s feeds. (3) Colonize the Web Thanks to a pair of new initiatives—dubbed Face book Connect and Open Stream—users don’ t have to log in to Facebook to communicate with their friends. Now they can access their network from any of 10, 000 partner sites or apps, contributing even more valuable data to Facebook’ s servers every time they do it. (4) Sell targeted ads, everywhere Face book hopes to one day sell advertising across all of its partner sites and apps, not just on its own site. The company will be able to draw on the immense volume of personal data it owns to create extremely targeted messages. The challenge: not freaking out its users in the process.To understand Face book’ s challenge to Google, consider my friend and neighbor Wayne, a PhD in computer science from UC Berkeley and a veteran of many big-time programming jobs. I know a lot about him because we are friends. I know even more because we are Face book friends. On his online profile, I not only find the standard personal-blog-type information—his birthday, address, resume, and pictures of his wife, son, and step- kids. I also discover that he likes to make beer, that he had dinner at one of my favorite restaurants last week, and that he likes to watch cartoons. Indeed, he has posted something about his life almost every day for the past two months-wondering whether his son’ s Little League game will get rained out， asking his friends what the impeller in his central heating unit does. But if I type Wayne’ s name into Google, I learn very little. I am directed to an old personal Web site, with links that have almost all expired, and a collection of computer-science papers he has written over the years. That’ s about it. Hardly any of Wayne’ s Face book information turns up on a Google search, because all of it, along with similar details about the other 200 million Face book users， exists on the social network’ s roughly 40, 000 servers. Together, this data comprises a mammoth amount of activity, almost a second Internet. By Face book5s estimates, every month users share 4 billion pieces of information-news stories, status updates, birthday wishes, and so on. They also upload 850 million photos and 8 million videos. But anyone wanting to access that stuff must go through Face book; the social network treats it all as proprietary data， largely shielding it from Google’ s crawlers. Except for the mostly cursory information that users choose to make public, what happens on Face book’ s servers stays on Face book’ s servers. That represents a massive and fast-growing blind spot for Google, whose long-stated goal is to “organize the world’ s information. ” Face book isn’ t just kneecapping Google’ s search engine; it is also competing with it. Face book encourages its 200 million members to use Microsoft5s search engine, which it installed on its homepage late last year as part of the deal struck between the two companies. At press time, it was also planning to launch Face book Search, allowing users to scour one another s feeds. Want to see what some anonymous schmuck thought about the Battlestar Galactica finale? Check out Google. Want to see what your friends had to say? Try Face book Search. And it will not only be for searching within Face book. Because Face book friends post links to outside sites, you will be able to use it as a gateway to the Web-making it a direct threat to Google. Why settle for articles about the Chrysler bankruptcy that the Google News algorithm recommends when you can read what your friends suggest? Already, Face book is starting to horn in on Google 5s role as the predominant driver of Web traffic. According to Hitwise, Face book in recent months has sent more traffic than Google to Evite, video site Tagged. com, and gossip mills Perez Hilton. com and Dlisted. That trend should only grow with the advent of Face book Search.These are just the latest moves in an ambitious campaign to make the social graph an integral, ubiquitous element of life online. In December, Face book launched Connect, a network of more than 10, 000 independent sites that lets users access their Face book relationships without logging in to Facebook . com. Go to Digg, for instance, and see which stories friends recommended. Head to Citysearch and see which restaurants they have reviewed. Visit TechCrunch, Gawker, or the Huffington Post and read comments they have left. On Inauguration Day, millions of users logged in to CNN. com with their Face book ID and discussed the proceedings with their friends in real time.In April, Face book announced its Open Stream API, allowing developers to create mashups using Face book’ s constantly updated stream of user activity. Previously, users who wanted to read their friends5 News Feeds had to go to the Face book site. Now developers can export that information to any site or to freestanding applications, much as Twitter desktop clients do for Tweets.Connect and Open Stream don’ t just allow users to access their Face book networks from anywhere online. They also help realize Face book’ s longtime vision of giving users a unique, Web-wide online profile. By linking Web activity to Face book accounts, they begin to replace the largely anonymous “no one knows you’ re a dog” version of online identity with one in which every action is tied to who users really are.To hear Face book executives tell it, this will make online interactions more meaningful and more personal. Imagine, for example, if online comments were written by people using their real names rather than by anonymous trolls. Up until now all the advancements in technology have said information and data are the most important thing/9 says Dave Morin, Face book’ s senior platform manager. “The most important thing to us is that there is a person sitting behind that keyboard. We think the Internet is about people. ”But you don’ t build a competitor to Google with people alone. You need data. And Connect and Open Stream are intended to make Face book a much more powerful force for collecting user information. Any time someone logs in to a site that uses Connect or Open Stream, they give Face book the right to keep track of any activity that happens there-potentially contributing tons more personal data to Face book’ s servers. Face book Connect and Open Stream are also designed to make each user’ s friend network, which belongs to Face book, even more valuable and crucial to the Web experience. Together, they aim to put Face book users5 social networks at the center of all they do online.Mark Zuckerberg is notoriously cocky, even by the standards of Silicon Valley. Two years ago, he walked away from a reported nearly $ 1 billion offer from Yahoo for his company. He could have sold to Google or Microsoft for a lot more. His business cards once famously read: im ceo . . . bitch . And he has described Face book as a once-in-a- century communications revolution, implying that he is right up there with Gutenberg and Marconi.Still, you’ d think he might play it a little cool when discussing Google, not wanting to antagonize the most powerful company on the Internet. But Zuckerberg doesn’ t pull any punches, describing Google as “a top-down way” of organizing the Web that results in an impersonal experience that stifles online activity. “You have a bunch of machines and algorithms going out and crawling the Web and bringing information back he says. ” That only gets stuff that is publicly available to everyone. And it doesn’ t give people the control that they need to be really comfortable. ” Instead, he says, Internet users will share more data when they are allowed to decide which information they make public and which they keep private. No one wants to live in a surveillance society, ” Zuckerberg adds, “which, if you take that to its extreme, could be where Google is going”In a way, Face book’ s dilemma extends from its success. Users see the site as sanctified space, a place to engage in intimate conversations with friends-not to be laser- beamed by weirdly personal advertising. But with initiatives like Connect and Open Stream, Face book can sell ads beyond its own site. Just as Google’ s AdSense program sells ads on any participating Web site, Connect and Open Stream will eventually push Face book-brokered advertising to any member site or app. But unlike with AdSense, Face book’ s ads could be exquisitely tailored to their targets. No one out there has the data that we have, ” says COO Sandberg.That’ s where the big-budget brand advertisers come in. Google has courted them for four years， to no avail. That’ s because, while search ads are great at delivering advertising to users who are seeking specific products, they are less effective at creating demand for stuff users don’ t yet know they want. Google has tried everything to lure brand advertisers—from buying and selling radio ads to purchasing YouTube. And it is easy to see why it keeps trying. Today, global online brand advertising accounts for just $50 billion a year. Offline brand advertising, meanwhile, accounts for an estimated $500 billion.Google’ s desire to crack the brand-advertising conundrum is so intense, some company executives have even considered swallowing their pride and pursuing another deal with Face book. But whether or not it ultimately friends the social network, Google has clearly been influenced by it. On December 4, the same day that Face book Connect launched, Google unveiled its own version, Friend Connect, which allows Web sites to link to accounts on any of the major social networks—including MySpace, Linkedln, Ning, Hi5, and Bebo. In March, four months after Face book reportedly offered $500 million in a failed bid for Twitter, reports surfaced that Google was holding similar talks. (A Google insider confirms the discussions. ) It is easy to see the appeal: Twitter is growing even faster than Face book—doubling its membership in March—and would give Google access to the kind of personal information that fills Face book News Feeds. And Google recently announced Wave, a Web communications platform that encourages Face book-like sharing and conversations. The company even seems to have conceded Zuckerberg’ s point about its impersonal search results. In April, Google announced a plan to allow individuals to create detailed profiles that would show up whenever anyone searches for their name. If they opt for this service—a big if—users gain greater control over how they are portrayed online, which will give them the incentive to share with Google the kind of personal information they had previously shared only with Face book.Google has even shown a willingness to join Face book in gingerly tapping the third rail of Internet marketing- behavioral targeting. The search giant has long assured its users that it would never use their personal information to deliver targeted advertising, relying instead on aggregate data or search activity that preserves anonymity. ( There is a line with users that you don’ t want to cross, ” Google CEO Eric Schmidt said in the wake of the Beacon controversy. ) But in March, Google started its own behavioral targeting campaign—tracking users5 browsing to deliver more-customized ads. Users have the option to either edit their profiles or opt out entirely.In September 2007, Gideon Yu was hired as Face book’ s CFO. Before that, the 38-year-old had been CFO at YouTube, where he negotiated its acquisition by Google. He d also put in four years as Yahoo5s treasurer and v/as one of its top dealmakers. Face book announced the hire with much fanfare. “I consider it kind of a coup that we were able to recruit him here, ” Zuckerberg told the Wall Street Journal. “He’ s just excellent. ”Nineteen months later, Yu was gone. It was a short tenure- not unprecedented for a private-company CFO. But Zuckerberg turned Yu5s departure into a kerfuffle by publicly trashing him, saying that the job had simply outgrown him and that Face book now needed a CFO with substantial public company experience. ” To many， the performance was a stark reminder that the Face book CEO, while undeniably ambitious and brilliant, was still just 24 years old. (He’ s 25 now. )Zuckerberg’ s youth has given Googlers some confidence. After all, even under the most sage and steady leadership, Face book would be confronted with a difficult challenge: turning a massive user base into a sustainable business. (Just ask Friendster, MySpace, YouTube, and Twitter. ) Through Google’ s own experience with YouTube, they have seen how expensive it can be to keep up with exploding user growth. They inked a disastrous $900 million partnership with My Space in 2006, a failure that taught them how hard it is to make money from social networking. And privately, they don’ t think Face book’ s staff has the brainpower to succeed where they have failed. If they found a way to monetize all of a sudden, sure, that would be a problem, ” says one highly placed Google executive. “But they’ re not going to. ”Face book’ s naysayers have a point. But before they get too complacent, they might remember another upstart that figured out a new way to organize the Internet. For five years, it worked on building its user base and perfecting its product, resisting pleas from venture capitalists to figure out how to make money. It was only after it had made itself an essential part of everyone’ s online life that its business path became clear—and it quickly grew to become one of the world’ s most powerful and wealthy companies. The name of that company, of course, was Google.

阅读理解Directions: There are 7 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C, and D. You should decide on the best choice.Passage 1Each summer, no matter how pressing my work schedule, I take off one day exclusively for my son. We call it dad- son day. This year our third stop was the amusement park, where he discovered that he was tall enough to ride one of the fastest roller coasters in the world. We blasted through face-stretching turns and loops for ninety seconds. Then, as we stepped off the ride, he shrugged and, in a distressingly calm voice, remarked that it was not as exciting as other rides he’ d been on. As I listened, I began to sense something seriously out of balance.Throughout the season, I noticed similar events all around me. Parents seemed hard pressed to find new thrills for indifferent kids. Surrounded by ever-greater stimulation, their young faces were looking disappointed and bored.Facing their children’ s complaints of nothing to do. Parents were shelling out large numbers of dollars for various forms of entertainment. In many cases the money seemed to do little more than buy transient relief from the terrible moans of their bored children. This set me pondering the obvious question. How can it be so hard for kids to find something to do when there’ s never been such a range of stimulating entertainment available to them？ What really worries me is the intensity of the stimulation. I watch my little daughter’ s face as she absorbs the powerful onslaught of arousing visuals and bloody special effects in movies.Why do children immersed in this much excitement seem starved for more? That was, I realized, the point. I discovered during my own reckless adolescence that what creates excitement is not going fast, but going faster. Thrills have less to do with speed than changes in speed.I’ m concerned about the cumulative effect of years at these levels of feverish activity. It is no mystery to me why many teenagers appear apathetic and burned out, with a been there, done that air of indifference toward much of life. As increasing numbers of friends’ children are prescribed medications-stimulants to deal with inattentiveness at school or anti-depressants to help with the loss of interest and joy in their lives, I question the role of kids’ boredom in some of the diagnoses.My own work is focused on the chemical imbalances and biological factors related to behavioral and emotional disorders. These are complex problems. Yet I’ ve been reflecting more and more on how the pace of life and the intensity of stimulation may be contributing to the rising rates of psychiatric problems among children and adolescents in our society.

阅读理解Passage 2Directions: Read the passage and answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.Some of the senses that we and other terrestrial mammals take for granted are either reduced or absent in cetaceans or fail to function well in water. For example, it appears from their brain structure that toothed species are unable to smell. Baleen species, on the other hand, appear to have some related brain structures but it is not known whether these are functional, it has been speculated that as the blowholes evolved and migrated to the top of the head, the neural pathways serving sense of smell may have been nearly all sacrificed. Similarly, although at least some cetaceans have taste buds, the nerves serving these have degenerated or are rudimentary.The sense of touch has sometimes been described as weak too, but this view is probably mistaken. Trainers of captive dolphins and small whales ‘often remark on their animals’ responsiveness to being touched or rubbed, and both captive and free ranging cetacean individuals of all species (particularly adults and calves, or members of the same subgroup) appear to make frequent contact. This contact may help to maintain order within a group, and stroking or touching are part of the courtship ritual in most species. The area around the blowhole is also particularly sensitive and captive animals often object strongly to being touched there.The sense of vision is developed to different degrees in different species. Baleen species studied at close quarters underwater- specifically a grey whale calf in Captivity for a year, and free-ranging right whales and humpback whales studied and filmed off Argentina and Hawaii - have obviously tracked objects with vision underwater, and they can apparently see moderately well both in water and in air. However, the position of the eyes so restricts the field of vision in baleen whales that they probably do not have stereoscopic vision.On the other hand, the position of the eyes in most dolphins and porpoises suggests that they have stereoscopic vision forward and downward. Eye position in freshwater dolphins, which often swim on their side or upside down while feeding, suggests that what vision they have is stereoscopic forward and upward. By comparison, the bottlenose dolphin has extremely keen vision in water. Judging from the way it watches and tracks airborne flying fish, it can apparently see fairly well through the air- water interface as well. And although preliminary experimental evidence suggests that their in-air vision is poor, the accuracy with which dolphins leap high to take small fish out of a trainer’ s hand provides anecdotal evidence to the contrary.Such variation can no doubt be explained with reference to the habitats in which individual species have developed. For example, vision is obviously more useful to species inhabiting clear open waters than to those living in turbid rivers and flooded plains. The South American boutu and Chinese beiji, for instance, appear to have very limited vision, and the Indian susus are blind, their eyes reduced to slits that probably allow them to sense only the direction and intensity of light.Although the senses of taste and smell appear to have deteriorated, and vision in water appears to be uncertain, such weaknesses are more than compensated for by cetaceans’ well-developed acoustic sense. Most species are highly vocal, although they vary in the range of sounds the) , produce, and many forage for food using echolocation. Large baleen whales primarily use the lower frequencies and are often limited in their repertoire. Notable exceptions are the nearly song-like choruses of bowhead whales in summer and the complex, haunting utterances of the humpback whales. Toothed species in general employ more of the frequency spectrum, and produce a wider variety of sounds, than baleen species (though the sperm whale apparently produces a monotonous series of high-energy clicks and little else) . Some of the more complicated sounds are clearly communicative, although what role they may play in the social life and ‘culture’ of cetaceans has been more the subject of wild speculation than of solid science.

阅读理解Investigators of monkeys' social behavior