LEADERSHIP 1 In every established human group, individuals fill various roles, and a very important role is that of leader. Leaders perform certain functions that are necessary for the group to achieve its goals. Leadership is distributed throughout all segments of our society: government, business, organized labor, education, social agencies, the professions, the media, and so on. Leadership is also dispersed through the levels of social functioning, from the highest levels of national life to the school principal, the store manager, the local union leader, and the club president. 2 The relationship between leaders and followers varies in different cultures. The relationship also varies according to whether the group or organization is in a time of calm or crisis, prosperity or recession, growth or stagnation. Leaders must be considered within their cultural and historic context, the setting in which they function, and the system over which they preside. The top leader of a nation, the president or prime minister, symbolizes the nation"s collective identity. For this reason, the death of a nation"s top leader causes a profound sense of grief and loss. 3 A leader is a crucial symbol of unity. In a healthy society, every activity takes place within a set of shared beliefs that define the standards of acceptable behavior governing individual members. One of the tasks of leadership at all levels is to energize these shared beliefs and values, and to draw on them as sources of motivation for the efforts of the group. Leaders renew the society"s values and keep them relevant. They help the society to understand its history as well as the problems of the present. Leaders have an important role in creating the mindset of the society, in setting the society"s goals, and in uniting people toward reaching these goals. History will judge leaders on how well they understand the society"s values and on how they adapt traditions to deal with present problems. 4 On a very basic level, leadership is the process of persuasion or example by which a single leader or a leadership team persuades a group to pursue objectives held by the leader or shared by the members of the group. Most leadership today is an attempt to accomplish purposes through large, complex, organized systems, such as the government ministry, the university system, and the professional association. 5 Leadership requires a great deal of energy, effort, common sense, and courage, and effective leaders are skilled in five essential areas. The first of these is agreement building. Leaders must be skilled in conflict resolution, compromise, achieving consensus, and building coalitions both within the organization and with other organizations. The second essential skill concerns the exercise of power. Leaders must know how to use the power that comes to them naturally through their position as leader. They must also know how to utilize other legitimate forms of power, such as the power of the media and public opinion. Third, leaders must be skilled in networking, the exchange of information and ideas and the creation of connections with other organizations—relationships that are necessary for accomplishing results. Fourth, leaders must be flexible. They must have the judgment and ability to change strategies when one strategy does not work or when circumstances change. Finally, leaders must be skilled in organization building. They must have a vision of where the whole organization should be going, and they must establish the systems that will move the organization to where it should be. 6 Each of these essential skills involves communication. In fact, if one had to name a single, all-purpose instrument of leadership, it would be communication. If an organization is to remain vital, it must have fluid and open communication among all its parts. There must be easy communication from leaders to followers, but also return communication, including disagreement. Leaders have to recognize and respond to all of the signals coming toward them. Communication and influence must flow in both directions, and in the process, leaders both shape followers and are shaped by them.

American Poets of the Twentieth Century Twentieth century poetry represents many schools of writing. During this century poetry incorporated traditional ideas as well as modern thinking. American writers began deviating from traditional 19th century style to create a new style which provided an enormous shower of verse reflective of New World, rather than Old World, ideas. ? Robert Frost was one of America"s leading twentieth century poets. [■] Many of Frost"s poems focused on rural New England but his poems also contained philosophical ideas that encompassed all regions of America. [■] He wrote traditional verse but he also used rhythm and meter and vocabulary of everyday speech. As a result, Frost"s poetry is thought to be both traditional and experimental. Frost was born in California but moved to Massachusetts as a young man when his father died. [■] Frost wrote for several years on a part-time basis, supplementing his income by teaching school and operating a farm which his grandfather had purchased for him. Although he wrote numerous poems during this time, rarely were any of his writings published. [■] At the age of 38, he sold the farm and devoted his time to full-time writing. Successful results were almost immediate. Frost moved to England and continued writing. A London publisher purchased his book A Boy"s Will, and it was this book"s publication that gained Frost recognition as a poet in the United States and abroad. Frost returned to America, taught and lectured at universities, served as "poet in residence" at a university in Canada, and continued publishing poetry. He was awarded four Pulitzer Prizes for his poetry. The Road Not Taken and Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening are two poems which demonstrate Frost"s ability to combine visions of rural settings and philosophical ideas into beautiful lyrical verse. ? Carl Sandburg, another twentieth century poet, was the second of seven children born to a working class family of Swedish immigrants who lived in Illinois. Carl completed eight years of school before he began working to support himself. He delivered milk, threshed wheat, laid brick, shined shoes and then began traveling as a hobo. At the age of twenty, Sandburg volunteered to serve in the Spanish-American War and was sent to Puerto Rico where he battled mosquitoes and heat rather than enemy soldiers. When he returned to Illinois, he entered college and worked as a fireman to support himself. Sandburg left school in his senior year but his college years were instrumental in helping him shape his political views and literary talents. Adopting socialist views, Sandburg was concerned about the plight of the American worker and the poor. He worked as a reporter for the Chicago Daily News for several years and covered the current labor issues. Sandburg did not become well known as a writer until 1914 when several of his poems appeared in a national poetry magazine. Two years later his book of Chicago poems was published and he found himself in the international spotlight. A book that Sandburg wrote about fanciful children"s tales prompted his publisher to suggest he write a biography of Abraham Lincoln for children. The result was a well-researched two-volume biography of Lincoln for adult readers. His second volume, Abraham Lincoln, The War Years , won him a Pulitzer Prize. Sandburg completed four more volumes in the Lincoln series and continued to publish poems, a novel, volumes of folk songs, and an autobiography. Sandburg died in 1967. ? Langston Hughes, a black American writer and another prolific twentieth century writer, also died in 1967. Hughes was born in Missouri into an abolitionist family and grew up in Kansas and Ohio. As an eighth grader, Hughes was selected as the "Class Poet" because of the many poems he had written. Hughes loved writing but his father encouraged him to pursue the more practical career of engineering. Hughes began the study of engineering and, although he was an excellent student, he dropped out of Columbia University to continue writing his poetry. The Negro Speaks of Rivers was Hughes" first published poetry and it was one of his most famous. Hughes enjoyed music, especially blues and jazz. During the 1920s, he traveled to Africa and Europe. When he returned to Harlem, New York in 1924, he wrote poetry which reflected on his earlier experiences. Hughes returned to college and graduated in 1929 and devoted his life to writing and lecturing. He wrote sixteen books of poems, two novels, several collections of short stories, editorial and documentary fiction, plays, operas, and three autobiographies. As one of the most important writers of the Harlem Renaissance, Hughes" writings promoted African American culture and spirituality. Glossary verse: a poem, or piece of poetry volume: a collection of written sheets bound together and constituting a book autobiography: a history of a person"s life written or told by that person

Reading1"ResourcesandIndustrialisminCanada"→Whilethemuch-anticipatedexpansionofthewesternfrontierwasunfoldinginaccordancewiththedesignoftheNationalPolicy,anewnorthernfrontierwasopeninguptoenhancetheprospectsofCanadianindustrialdevelopment.Longthepreserveofthefurtrade,theCanadianShieldandthewesternCordillerasbecameatreasuryofminerals,timberandhydroelectricpowerinthelate19thandearly20thcenturies.Asearlyas1883,CPR[CanadianPacificRailway]constructioncrewsblastingthroughtheruggedterrainofnorthernOntariodiscoveredcopperandnickeldepositsinthevicinityofSudbury.Asrefiningprocesses,uses,andmarketsforthemetaldeveloped,Sudburybecametheworld'slargestnickelproducer.ThebuildingoftheTemiskamingandNorthernOntarioRailwayledtothediscoveryofrichsilverdepositsaroundCobaltnorthofLakeNipissingin1903andtouchedoffaminingboomthatspreadnorthwardtoKirklandLakeandthePorcupinedistrict.Althoughtheeconomicimportanceoftheseminingoperationswasenduring,theydidnotcapturethepublicimaginationtothesameextentastheKlondikegoldrushofthelate1890s.→Fortune-seekersfromallpartsoftheworldflockedtotheKlondikeandYukonRivervalleystopanforgoldstartingin1896.Attheheightofthegoldrushin1898,thepreviouslyunsettledsubarcticfrontierhadapopulationofabout30,000,morethanhalfofwhichwasconcentratedinthenewlyestablishedtownofDawson.Inthesameyear,thefederalgovernmentcreatedtheYukonTerritory,administeredbyanappointedcommissioner,inanefforttowardofftheprospectofannexationtoAlaska.EveniftheeconomicsignificanceoftheKlondikestrikewassomewhatexaggeratedandshort-lived,thetalesofsuddenriches,heroicandtragicexploits,andtherowdinessandlawlessnessoftheminingfrontierwereimmortalizedthroughpopularfictionandfolklore,notablythepoeticversesofRobertW.Service.→Perhapslessromanticthantheminingbooms,theexploitationofforestandwaterresourceswasjustasvitaltonationaldevelopment.TheDouglasfir,spruce,andcedarstandsofBritishColumbiaalongwiththewhitepineforestsofOntariosatisfiedconstructiondemandsonthetreelessprairiesaswellasinthegrowingcitiesandtownsofcentralCanadaandtheUnitedStates.BritishColumbia'sforestsalsosuppliedlumbertoAsia.Inaddition,thesoftwoodforestwealthoftheCordillerasandtheShieldwasavaluablesourceofpulpwoodforthedevelopmentofthepulpandpaperindustry,whichmadeCanadaoneoftheworld'sleadingexportersofnewsprint.Furthermore,thefastflowingriversoftheShieldandCordillerascouldreadilybeharnessedassourcesofhydroelectricpower,replacingcoalintheboomingfactoriesofcentralCanadaaswellasintheevolvingminingandpulpandpaperindustries.TheageofelectricityunderpublicownershipandcontrolwasusheredinbythecreationoftheOntarioHydro-ElectricPowerCommission(nowOntarioHydro)in1906todistributeandeventuallytoproducethisvitalsourceofenergy.→Westernsettlementandtheopeningofthenorthernresourcefrontierstimulatedindustrialexpansion,particularlyincentralCanada.AstheNationalPolicyhadintended,agrowingagriculturalpopulationintheWestincreasedthedemandforeasternmanufacturedgoods,therebygivingrisetoagriculturalimplementsworks,ironandsteelfoundries,machineshops,railwayyards,textilemills,bootandshoefactories,andnumeroussmallermanufacturingenterprisesthatsuppliedconsumergoods.Bykeepingoutlower-pricedforeignmanufacturedgoods,thehightariffpoliciesofthefederalgovernmentreceivedmuchcreditforprotectingexistingindustriesandencouragingthecreationofnewenterprises.Toclimbthetariffwall,largeAmericanindustrialfirmsopenedbranchesinCanada,andthegovernmentsofOntarioandQuebecaggressivelyurgedthemonbyofferingbonuses,subsidies,andguaranteestolocatenewplantswithintheirborders.Canadianindustrialenterprisesbecameincreas-inglyattractivetoforeigninvestors,especiallyfromtheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain.Muchoftheover$600millionofAmericancapitalthatflowedintoCanadafrom1900to1913wasearmarkedforminingandthepulpandpaperindustry,whileBritishinvestorscontributednear$1.8billion,mostlyinrailwaybuilding,businessdevelopment,andtheconstructionofurbaninfrastructure.Asaresult,thegrossvalueofCanadianmanufacturedproductsquadrupledfrom1891to1916.

POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 1 Monarchy is a form of government in which authority is held by a single person, a monarch, whose fight to rule is generally hereditary and lifelong. At the start of the twentieth century, monarchs ruled over most of the world, but by the middle of the century, only a handful remained. A series of revolutions in the preceding centuries had weakened the European monarchies, and while monarchs remained symbols of national unity, real power had passed to constitutional assemblies. Monarchy survived as a form in Europe only where the king or queen functioned as the symbolic head of a parliamentary state, as in Britain, the Low Countries, and Scandinavia. It lasted longer in the few small states of Asia and Africa that had never come under direct colonial rule. By the 1960s, autocratic monarchy had become an outdated form of government. Throughout most of the world, people were considered citizens, not subjects, and the totality of the people were seen as constituting the state. 2 In most states where monarchical authority was removed, some form of liberal democracy took its place. A liberal democracy is a state where political authority rests in the people acting through elected representatives and where an elected executive is responsible to the will of the people as a whole. The term applies to a broad group of states with a parliamentary or representative political tradition. Liberal democracies differ from the communist states known as people"s democracies , in which the Communist party holds the ultimate authority. Generally, liberal democracies follow the parliamentary pattern, with the executive power vested in a cabinet responsible to the parliament and drawn from the majority party or combination of parties. In the United States, an independently elected executive, the president, functions separately from the legislative authority, the congress. 3 The doctrine that all of the people had effective authority, or sovereignty, became the basis for the functioning of democratic states. This doctrine of popular sovereignty became all-inclusive as citizenship rights were extended to classes formerly excluded and to women. The liberal democratic state claimed the right to control every aspect of human life according to the will of the people, except where limits on state control were directly stated in a bill of rights in a democratic constitution and recognized in practice . 4 All democratic states, both parliamentary and presidential, changed in form during the twentieth century. To meet the needs of an urban industrial society, states generally enlarged their scope of activity to control economic power and to provide common services to the people. The expansion of state activity and extension of state services involved a new view of legislation and its role in society. The passing of laws came to be seen as a way to promote the well being of the people. With this new concept of legislation, the number of new laws increased immensely, particularly in the areas of social welfare, education, health and safety, and economic development. 5 The trend toward liberal democracy continued throughout the century, but at various times there was also a tendency toward a revival of authoritarian rule. In a number of states, democratic governments could not cope with the crises of the time. In these cases, some form of totalitarian dictatorship emerged, replacing popular sovereignty with the total power of the state. In some instances, monarchy gave way directly to dictatorship. In others, dictatorial regimes took over democratically organized states, notably in Eastern Europe in the years between the two world wars, in new states of Asia and Africa in the 1950s, and sporadically in Central and South America. 6 Authoritarian governments showed three principal characteristics. First, there was a head of state or leader with exceptional powers, with a party to support him. Second, the legislative body was elected by a system that prohibited parties opposed to the regime, and third, there was a bureaucratic administration that was in no way subject to popular control. The most extreme position on these points was taken by Hitler"s totalitarian National Socialist State in the 1930s.

Influenza and Vaccines There is no specific cure for influenza. Recommended treatment usually consists of bed rest and increased intake of nonalcoholic fluids until fever and other symptoms lessen in severity. Certain drugs have been found effective in lessening flu symptoms, but medical efforts aimed against the disease focus chiefly on prevention by means of vaccines that create immunity. No drugs can cure influenza, but certain antiviral medicines can relieve flu symptoms. Available by prescription, these drugs provide modest relief, but only if taken on the first or second day of symptoms. The drugs amantadine (sold under the brand name Symmetrel) and rimantadine (Flumadine., both in pill form, work against hemagglutinin and are effective in treating type A influenza. Two other drugs inhibit neuraminidase and are effective against both type A and type B strains: oseltamivir (Tamiflu) is in pill form and zanamivir (Relenza. is an inhalant. A flu vaccine consists of greatly weakened or dead flu viruses, or fragments of dead viruses. Antigens in the vaccine stimulate the patient's immune system to produce antibodies against the viruses. If the flu viruses invade a vaccinated person at a later time, the sensitized immune system recognizes the antigens, produces the antibodies and quickly responds to help destroy them. About 5 to 10 percent of people who receive a flu vaccine experience mild, temporary side effects, typically soreness at the injection site. Young children who have not previously been exposed to the influenza virus are most likely to experience side effects. Flu viruses constantly change so different virus strains must be incorporated in vaccines from one year to the next. Scientists try to provide a good match between the vaccine and the most serious virus strains circulating at the time. But because it takes months to manufacture and distribute vaccines, decisions on their composition must be made well before the start of each flu season. Each February experts at the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend a vaccine composition to be used for the forthcoming winter in the Northern Hemisphere; a second recommendation is made in September for vaccines to be used in the Southern Hemisphere. Typically vaccines contain antigens from three virus strains, usually two strains from type A and one strain from type B. According to the CDC, the success of flu vaccines varies from one person to another. In healthy young adults, the vaccines are 70 to 90 percent effective in preventing the disease. In the elderly and people with certain chronic medical conditions, the vaccines are less effective in preventing illness but help reduce the severity of an infection and the risk of major complications or death. Studies show that flu vaccines reduce flu-related hospitalization by about 70 percent and flu-related deaths by about 85 percent among elderly people. The CDC recommends annual flu shots for people who are at high risk for developing serious complications as a result of an influenza infection.A. [■]This group includes all people aged 65 and older; people in nursing homes and other facilities that house people with chronic medical conditions; people with chronic heart, lung or kidney disease, diabetes, an impaired immune system, or severe forms of anemia; children and adolescents with conditions treated for long periods of time with aspirin (which makes them vulnerable to Reye's syndrome. ; and women who will be in the second or third trimester of pregnancy during the influenza season.B. [■] Some doctors encourage individuals who travel to areas of the world where influenza viruses circulate to receive the most current vaccine.C. [■] Vaccination taken earlier can better protect the travellers from being infected by influenza in the epidemic areasD. [■] vaccination is more urgently needed particularly if they are at higher risk of complications It takes the human immune system one to two weeks after vaccination to develop antibodies to the flu antigens. According to the CDC, the best time to get flu shots in the United States is between October 1st and mid-November—sufficiently in advance of the peak of influenza activity, which in the United States generally lasts from late December until early March. Flu shots must be given annually for two reasons. First, antibody protection that is provided by the vaccine decreases during the year following vaccination. Second, vaccines created for pre-existing viral strains may not work against new strains; nor does an infection with one flu strain confer immunity to infection by another strain.

TemperatureThreescalesoftemperature,eachofwhichpermitsaprecisemeasurement,areinconcurrentuse:theFahrenheit,Celsius,andKelvinscales.Thesethreedifferenttemperaturescaleswereeachdevelopedbydifferentpeopleandhavecometobeusedindifferentsituations.ThescalethatismostwidelyusedbythegeneralpublicintheUnitedStatesistheFahrenheitscale.In1714,DanielGabrielFahrenheit,aGermanphysicistwhowaslivinginHollandandoperatinganinstrumentbusiness,developedamercury-in-glassthermometerandthetemperaturescalethatstillcarrieshisname.Hisoriginalscalehadtwofixedpoints:0°wasthelowesttemperaturethathecouldachieveinasolutionofice,water,andsalt,and96°waswhathebelievedwasthenormaltemperatureofthehumanbody(thoughthiswaslaterdeterminedtobe98.6°).Basedonthisscale,hecalculatedthatthefreezingpoint(oricepoint)ofwaterwas32°;inlaterstudies,itwasdeterminedthattheboilingpointofwater(thesteampoint)was212°.TheFahrenheitscalecametobeacceptedasthestandardmeasureoftemperatureinanumberofcountries,includingGreatBritain,andfromthereitwasspreadtoBritishcoloniesthroughouttheworld.Today,however,theUnitedStatesistheonlymajorcountryintheworldthatstillusestheFahrenheitscale.ThescalethatisinuseinmanyothercountriesistheCelsiusscale.AndersCelsius(1701-1744),aSwedishastronomer,developedathermometerin1741thatbasedtemperaturesonthefreezingandboilingtemperaturesofwater.OnthethermometerthatCelsiusdeveloped,however,0°wasusedtoindicatetheboilingtemperatureofwater,and100°wasusedtoindicatethefreezingtemperatureofwater.Afterhisdeath,thescalewasreversedbyafriend,thebiologistCarlyonLinne(1707-1748),whoachievedacclaimforhisdevelopmentoftheLinneanclassificationsystemforplantsandanimals.OnthenewscaleafterthereversalbyyonLinne,0°indicatedthefreezingtemperatureofwater,and100°indicatedtheboilingtemperatureofwater.AtaroundthesametimethatCelsiusandyonLinnewereworkingontheirthermometerinSweden,asimilarthermometerwasbeingdevelopedinFrance.AftertheFrenchRevolution,thescaledevelopedinFrancewasadoptedaspartofthemetricsysteminthatcountryunderthenamecentigrade,whichmeans"ahundredunits"andfromthereitspreadworldwide.In1948,aninternationalagreementwasmadetorenamethecentigradescaletheCelsiusscaleinhonorofthescientistwhowasfirstknowntousea100-degreescale,thoughitshouldberememberedthatthescalethatCelsiusactuallyusedhimselfwasthereverseoftoday'sscale.Athirdscale,theKelvinscale,isgenerallyusedtodayforscientificpurposes.Thisscalewasfirstsuggestedin1854bytwoEnglishphysicists:WilliamThomson,LordKelvin(1824-1907)andJamesPrescottJoule(1818-1889).TheKelvinscaledefines0°asabsolutezero,thehypotheticaltemperatureatwhichallatomicandmolecularmotiontheoreticallystops,and100~separatesthefreezingpointandboilingpointofwater,justasitdoesontheCelsiusscale.OntheKelvinscale,with0°equaltoabsolutezero,waterfreezesat273°,andwaterboilsatatemperature100°higher.TheKelvinscaleiswellsuitedtosomeareasscientificstudybecauseitdoesnothaveanynegativevalues,yetitstillmaintainsthe100°differencebetweenthefreezingpointandboilingpointofwaterthattheCelsiusscalehasandcanthuseasilybeconvertedtotheCelsiusscalebymerelysubtracting273°fromthetemperatureontheKelvinscale.

Reading2"OrganicArchitecture"Oneofthemoststrikingpersonalitiesinthedevelopmentofearly-twentieth-centuryarchitecturewasFrankLloydWright(1867-1959).WrightattendedtheUniversityofWisconsininMadisonbeforemovingtoChicago,whereheeventuallyjoinedthefirmheadedbyLouisSullivan.Wrightsetouttocreate"architectureofdemocracy."EarlyinfluenceswerethevolumetricshapesinasetofeducationalblockstheGermaneducatorFriedrichFroebeldesigned,theorganicunityofaJapanesebuildingWrightsawattheColumbianExpositioninChicagoin1893,andaJeffersonianbeliefinindividualismandpopulism.Alwaysabelieverinarchitectureas"natural"and"organic,"Wrightsawitasservingfreeindividualswhohavetherighttomovewithina"free"space,envisionedasanonsymmetricaldesigninteractingspatiallywithitsnaturalsurroundings.Hesoughttodevelopanorganicunityofplanning,structure,materials,andsite.Wrightidentifiedtheprincipleofcontinuityasfundamentaltounderstandinghisviewoforganicunity:"Classicarchitecturewasallfixation....Nowwhynotletwalls,ceilings,floorsbecomeseenascomponentpartsofeachother?...Thisideal,profoundinitsarchitecturalimplications...Icalled...continuity."Wrightmanifestedhisvigorousoriginalityearly,andby1900hehadarrivedatastyleentirelyhisown.Inhisworkduringthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,hiscross-axialplanandhisfabricofcontinuousroofplanesandscreensdefinedanewdomesticarchitecture.→WrightfullyexpressedtheseelementsandconceptsinRobieHouse,builtbetween1907and1909.LikeotherbuildingsintheChicagoareahedesignedataboutthesametime,thiswascalleda"prairiehouse."Wrightconceivedthelong,sweepingground-hugginglines,unconfinedbyabruptwalllimits,asreachingouttowardandcapturingtheexpansivenessoftheMidwest'sgreatflatlands.Abandoningallsymmetry,thearchitecteliminatedafacade,extendedtheroofsfarbeyondthewalls,andallbutconcealedtheentrance.Wrightfilledthe"wandering"planoftheRobieHousewithintricatelyjoinedspaces(somelargeandopen,othersclosed),groupedfreelyaroundagreatcentralfireplace.(Hebelievedstronglyinthehearth'sage-olddomesticsignificance.)Wrightdesignedenclosedpatios,overhangingroofs,andstripwindowstoprovideunexpectedlightsourcesandglimpsesoftheoutdoorsaspeoplemovethroughtheinteriorspace.Theseelements,togetherwiththeopengroundplan,createasenseofspace-in-motioninsideandout.Hesetmassesandvoidsinequilibrium;theflowofinteriorspacedeterminedtheexteriorwallplacement.Theexterior'ssharpangularplanesmeetatapparentlyoddangles,matchingthecomplexplayofinteriorsolids,whichfunctionnotasinertcontainingsurfacesbutaselementsequivalentinroletothedesign'sspaces.TheRobieHouseisagoodexampleofWright's"naturalism,"hisadjustingofabuildingtoitssite.However,inthisparticularcase,theconfinesofthecitylotconstrainedthebuilding-to-siterelationshipmorethandidthesitesofsomeofWright'smoreexpansivesuburbanandcountryhomes.TheKaufmannHouse,nicknamed"Fallingwater"anddesignedasaweekendretreatatBearRunnearPittsburgh,isaprimeexampleofthelatter.Perchedonarockyhillsideoverasmallwaterfall,thisstructureextendstheRobieHouse'sblockymassesinallfourdirections.Thecontrastintexturesbetweenconcrete,paintedmetal,andnaturalstonesinitswallsenlivenitsshapes,asdoesWright'suseoffull-lengthstripwindowstocreateastunninginterweavingofinteriorandexteriorspace.→TheimpliedmessageofWright'snewarchitecturewasspace,notmass—aspacedesignedtofitthepatron'slifeandenclosedanddividedasrequired.Wrighttookspecialpainstomeethisclient'srequirements,oftendesigningalltheaccessoriesofahouse.Inthelate1930s,heactedonacherisheddreamtoprovidegoodarchitecturaldesignforlessprosperouspeoplebyadaptingtheideasofhisprairiehousetoplansforsmaller,lessexpensivedwellings.ThepublicationofWright'splansbroughthimameasureoffameinEurope,especiallyinHollandandGermany.TheissuanceinBerlinin1910ofaportfolioofhisworkandanexhibitionofhisdesignsthefollowingyearstimulatedyoungerarchitectstoadoptsomeofhisideasaboutopenplans.Somefortyyearsbeforehiscareerended,hisworkwasalreadyofrevolutionarysignificance.

TheCuttingEdgeEconomistsandgovernmentsagreethesedaysonthecrucialimportanceofforeigndirectinvestment(FDI).Theyseeitbothastheglobalmarket's"sealofapproval"onacountry'spoliciesandprospects,andasaforce,especiallyindevelopingcountries,forfar-reachingeconomicchange.ThisconsensusissurprisingwhenyourememberthatFDIremainspoliticallysensitiveinmanypoor,andsomenot-so-poor,countries.Butthebenefitsaresogreatthatreservationsonthisaccounthavebeenputaside.ThepointaboutFDIisthatitisfarmorethanmere"capital":itisauniquelypotentbundleofcapital,contacts,andmanagerialandtechnologicalknowledge.Itisthecuttingedgeofglobalization.TheoutlookforFDI-intotal,andcountrybycountry--isthereforeamatterofgreatinterest.Forecastingit,however,isfarfromeasy.Thedeterminantsarecomplicated,andnotalwayssusceptibletomeasurement.Uptonow,sofarasthiscolumnisaware,detailedforecastshavenotbeenattempted.Inareportpublishedthisweek,theEconomistIntelligenceUnit(EIU),asistercompanyofTheEconomist,hasventuredintothisunchartedterritory.ItprovidesaforecastforFDIextendingto2005fornofewerthan60countries(accountingforvirtuallyalloftheworld'sactualandprojectedflowsofFDI).ThemaindifficultyarisesfromthefactthatFDIdependscloselyonwhattheEIUcallsthebusinessenvironment--anecessarilybroadtermthatincludes,onthefirm'sdefinition,70separateindicators.Someofthesearepolitical,andtotheextentthattheycanbemeasuredatallhavetobegaugedthroughsurveysthataskinvestorsquestionssuchas,"Isthequalityofthebureaucracyanditsabilitytocarryoutgovernmentpolicyveryhigh,high,moderate,loworverylow?"Itisonethingtocompilethiskindofevidenceintoabackward-lookingaggregatewhichcanthenbetestedforitsabilitytoexplainpastmovementsinFDI.Itisquiteanothertouseitforforecasting-becausetodothattheresearcherhastopredicthowpoliticalandotherconditionswillchange.Thereisnoalternativebuttoblendtogetherdifferentkindsofinformation.First,takewhateverevidenceeconometricscanyieldaboutthewaytheforcesdriving,FDI--sizeofhost-countrymarket,expectedgrowth,inputcosts,geographyandnaturalresources,andthepolicyframeworkhaveworkedinthepast.Next,addconventionalforecastsofrelevanteconomicaggregates.Third,unavoidably,makemorequalitativeandspeculativeassessmentsofchangesinother,"non-economic",conditions.Allthisthestudytriestodo.Itisacademicallyimpure,becauseithastobe.Buttheworkingsandthesupportinginformationareinplainview,andtheresultsareveryinteresting.GlobalFDIflowsareprojectedtoshrinkmarkedlythisyear,from$1.1trillionin2000tolessthan$800billion.AlmostallofthereductionisforecasttobeinFDItorichcountries,drivenbytheslowdowninAmericaandbythediminishingpaceofmergersandacquisitions(whichareaprincipaldriverofFDIinthedevelopedeconomies).FDItopoorcountriesmerelypauses,ataround$220billion.Insubsequentyears,flowsrecoveracrosstheboard,butgrowthinflowstopoorcountriescontinuestooutpace,modestly,growthinflowstorichones.Bythen,theglobalstockofFDIwillhaverisentomorethan$10trillion,accordingtothereport,fromlessthan$6trillionlastyear.TheUnitedStates,unsurprisingly,isexpectedtodominatetherankingsin2001-2005,muchasitdoestoday,accountingformorethan25%ofglobalinflows.TheanalysisshowsthatAmerica'sbusinessenvironmentisaboutasgoodasonewouldinfer,statisticallyspeaking,fromitsincome.Britain,incontrast,isoneof14countrieswithasomewhatbetterbusinessenvironmentthanitsincomewouldleadyoutoexpect(or,toputitlesskindly,withalowerincomethanitsbusinessenvironmentwouldleadyoutoexpect).Britainisexpectedtoremaintheworld'ssecond-biggestrecipientofFDI,accountingformorethan9%ofthetotalin2001-2005.IntermsofFDIperhead,Britaincurrentlyranksseventh,behind(indescendingorder)Ireland,Belgium,HongKongSAR,Sweden,SingaporeandtheNetherlands.Onthismeasure,theUnitedStatesranksfourteenth.Thestudy'smostencouragingfindingisthatscoresforbusinessenvironmentarerisingalmosteverywhere.FDIisacompetitiveundertaking,butnotazero-sumgame:risingscoresforbusinessenvironmentdrivethetotalshigher.Comparing2001-2005with1996-2000,theEIUmarksdownonlytwoeconomies,HongKongSARandMalaysia,andinneithercasebyenoughtoaltertheoverallassessment-"verygood"forHongKongSARand"good"forMalaysia.Thailand,Poland,HungaryandMexicoareamongthoseexpectedtomoveintheotherdirection,from"moderate"to"good",likewiseGermany,DenmarkandFrancefrom"good"to"verygood".

MUSICAL TALENT 1 Among all the abilities with which an individual may be endowed, musical talent appears earliest in life. Very young children can exhibit musical precocity for different reasons. Some develop exceptional skill as a result of a well-designed instructional regime, such as the Suzuki method for the violin. Some have the good fortune to be born into a musical family in a household filled with music. In a number of interesting cases, musical talent is part of an otherwise disabling condition such as autism or mental retardation. A musically gifted child has an inborn talent; however, the extent to which the talent is expressed publicly will depend upon the environment in which the child lives. 2 Musically gifted children master at an early age the principal elements of music, including pitch and rhythm. Pitch--or melody--is more central in certain cultures, for example, in Eastern societies that make use of tiny quarter-tone intervals. Rhythm, sounds produced at certain auditory frequencies and grouped according to a prescribed system, is emphasized in sub-Saharan Africa, where the rhythmic ratios can be very complex. 3 All children have some aptitude for making music. During infancy, normal children sing as well as babble, and they can produce individual sounds and sound patterns. Infants as young as two months can match their mother"s songs in pitch, loudness, and melodic shape, and infants at four months can match rhythmic structure as well. Infants are especially predisposed to acquire these core aspects of music, and they can also engage in sound play that clearly exhibits creativity. 4 Individual differences begin to emerge in young children as they learn to sing. Some children can match large segments of a song by the age of two or three. Many others can only approximate pitch at this age and may still have difficulty in producing accurate melodies by the age of five or six. However, by the time they reach school age, most children in any culture have a schema of what a song should be like and can produce a reasonably accurate imitation of the songs commonly heard in their environment. The early appearance of superior musical ability in some children provides evidence that musical talent may be a separate and unique form of intelligence. There are numerous tales of young artists who have a remarkable "ear" or extraordinary memory for music and a natural understanding of musical structure. In many of these cases, the child is average in every other way but displays an exceptional ability in music. Even the most gifted child, however, takes about ten years to achieve the levels of performance or composition that would constitute mastery of the musical sphere. 5 Every generation in music history has had its famous prodigies--individuals with exceptional musical powers that emerge at a young age. In the eighteenth century, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart began composing and performing at the age of six. As a child, Mozart could play the piano like an adult. He had perfect pitch, and at age nine he was also a master of the art of modulation--transitions from one key to another--which became one of the hallmarks of his style. By the age of eleven, he had composed three symphonies and 30 other major works. Mozart"s well-developed talent was preserved into adulthood. 6 Unusual musical ability is a regular characteristic of certain anomalies such as autism. In one case, an autistic girl was able to play "Happy Birthday" in the style of various composers, including Mozart, Beethoven, Verdi, and Schubert. When the girl was three, her mother communicated with her by playing incomplete melodies, which the child would complete with the appropriate tone in the proper octave. For the autistic child, music may be the primary mode of communication, and the child may cling to music because it represents a haven in a world that is largely confusing and frightening.

TheDigitalDivideTheChallengeofTechnologyandEquityInformationtechnologyisinfluencingthewaymanyofusliveandworktoday.WeusetheInternettolookandapplyforjobs,shop,conductresearch,makeairlinereservations,andexploreareasofinterest.WeuseemailandtheInternettocommunicateinstantaneouslywithfriendsandbusinessassociatesaroundtheworld.Computersarecommonplaceinhomesandtheworkplace.Althoughthenumberofinternetusersisgrowingexponentiallyeachyear,mostoftheworld'spopulationdoesnothaveaccesstocomputersortheInternet.Only6percentofthepopulationindevelopingcountriesareconnectedtotelephones.Althoughmorethan94percentofU.S.householdshavetelephones,only42percenthavepersonalcomputersathomeand26percenthaveInternetaccess.Thelackofwhatmostofuswouldconsiderabasiccommunicationsnecessity--thetelephone--doesnotoccurjustindevelopingnations.OnsomenativeAmericanreservationsonly60percentoftheresidentshaveatelephone.Themovetowirelessconnectionsmayeliminatetheneedfortelephonelines,butitdoesnotremovethebarriertoequipmentcosts.WhohasInternetaccess?Fiftypercentofthechildreninurbanhouseholdswithanincomeover$75,000haveInternetaccess,comparedwith2percentofthechildreninlow-income,ruralhouseholds.Nearlyhalfofcollege-educatedpeoplehaveInternetaccess,comparedto6percentofthosewithonlysomehighschooleducation.Fortypercentofhouseholdswithtwoparentshaveaccess;15percentoffemale,single-parenthouseholdsdo.Thirtypercentofwhitehouseholds,11percentofblackhouseholds,and13percentofHispanichouseholdshaveaccess.Teensandchildrenarethetwofastest-growingsegmentsofInternetusers.ThedigitaldividebetweenthepopulationswhohaveaccesstotheInternetandinformationtechnologytoolsisbasedonincome,race,education,householdtype,andgeographiclocation.Only16percentoftheruralpoor,ruralandcentralcityminorities,younghouseholders,andsingle-parentfemalehouseholdsareconnected.AnotherproblemthatexacerbatesthesedisparitiesisthatAfrican-Americans,Hispanics,andnativeAmericansholdfewofthejobsininformationtechnology.Womenholdabout20percentofthesejobsandarereceivingfewerthan30percentofthecomputersciencedegrees.Theresultisthatwomenandmembersofthemostoppressedethnicgroupsarenoteligibleforthejobswiththehighestsalariesatgraduation.Baccalaureatecandidateswithdegreesincomputersciencewereofferedthehighestsalariesofallnewcollegegraduatesin1998at$44,949.Dosimilardisparitiesexistinschools?Morethan90percentofallschoolsinthecountryarewiredwithatleastoneInternetconnection.ThenumberofclassroomswithInternetconnectionsdiffersbytheincomelevelofstudents.Usingthepercentageofstudentswhoareeligibleforfreelunchesataschooltodetermineincomelevel,weseethatnearlytwiceasmanyoftheschoolswithmoreaffluentstudentshavewiredclassroomsasthosewithhighconcentrationsoflow-incomestudents.AccesstocomputersandtheInternetwillbeimportantinreducingdisparitiesbetweengroups.Itwillrequiregreaterequalityacrossdiversegroupswhosemembersdevelopknowledgeandskillsincomputerandinformationtechnologies.IfcomputersandtheInternetaretobeusedtopromoteequality,theywillhavetobecomeaccessibletopopulationsthatcannotcurrentlyaffordtheequipmentwhichneedstobeupdatedeverythreeyearsorso.However,accessaloneisnotenough.Studentswillhavetobeinteractingwiththetechnologyinauthenticsettings.Astechnologybecomesatoolforlearninginalmostallcoursestakenbystudents,itwillbeseenasameanstoanendratherthananendinitself.Ifitisusedinculturallyrelevantways,allstudentscanbenefitfromitspower.

{{B}}ReadingSectionDirections{{/B}}Inthissectionyouwillreadfivepassagesandanswerreadingcomprehensionquestionsabouteachpassage.Mostquestionsareworthonepoint,butthelastquestionineachsetisworthmorethanonepoint.Thedirectionsindicatehowmanypointsyoumayreceive.Youwillhave60minutestoreadallofthepassagesandanswerthequestions.Somepassagesincludeawordorphrasethatisunderlinedinblue.Clickonthewordorphrasetoseeadefinitionoranexplanation.Whenyouwanttomoveontothenextquestion,clickonNext.Youcanskipquestionsandgobacktothemlateraslongasthereistimeremaining.Ifyouwanttoreturntopreviousquestions,clickonBack.YoucanclickonReviewatanytimeandthereviewscreenwillshowyouwhichquestionyouhaveansweredandwhichyouhavenot.Fromthisreviewscreen,youmaygodirectlytoanyquestionyouhavealreadyseeninthereadingsection.Whenyouarereadytocontinue,clickontheContinueicon.{{B}}Set1{{/B}}{{B}}OvercomingtheLanguageBarrier{{/B}}Thediscoverythatlanguagecanbeabarriertocommunicationisquicklymadebyallwhotravel,study,governorsell.Whethertheactivityistourism,research,government,policing,business,ordatadissemination,thelackofacommonlanguagecanseverelyimpedeprogressorcanhaltitaltogether."Commonlanguage"hereusuallymeansaforeignlanguage,butthesamepointappliesinprincipletoanyencounterwithunfamiliardialectsorstyleswithinasinglelanguage."Theydon'ttalkthesamelanguage"hasamajormetaphorricalmeaningalongsideitsliteralone.Althoughcommunicationproblemsofthiskindmusthappenthousandsoftimeseachday,veryfewbecomepublicknowledge.Publicitycomesonlywhenafailuretocommunicatehasmajorconsequences,suchasstrike,lostorders,legalproblems,orfatalaccidents-even,attimes,war.Onereportedinstanceofcommunicationfailuretookplacein1970,whenseveralAmericansateaspeciesofpoisonousmushroom.Noremedywasknown,andtwoofthepeoplediedwithindays.Aradioreportofthecasewasheardbyachemistwhoknewofatreatmentthathadbeensuccessfullyusedin1959andpublishedin1963.WhyhadtheAmericandoctorsnotheardofitsevenyearslater?PresumablybecausethereportofthetreatmenthadbeenpublishedonlyinjournalswritteninEuropeanlanguagesotherthanEnglish.Butisolatedexamplesdonotgiveanimpressionofthesizeoftheproblem——somethingthatcancomeonlyfromstudiesoftheuseoravoidanceofforeign-languagematerialsandcontactsindifferentcommunicativesituations.IntheEnglish-scientificworld,forexample,surveysofbooksanddocumentsconsultedinlibrariesandotherinformationagencieshaveshownthatverylittleforeign-languagematerialiseverconsulted.Libraryrequestsinthefieldofscienceandtechnologyshowedthatonly13percentwereforforeignlanguageperiodicals.Studiesofthesourcescitedinpublicationsleadtoasimilarconclusion:theuseofforeign-languagesourcesisoftenfoundtobeaslowas10percent.Thelanguagebarrierpresentsitselfinstarkformtoformwhowishtomarkettheirproductsinothercountries.Britishindustry,inparticular,hasinrecentdecadesoftenbeencriticizedforitslinguisticinsularity--foritsassumptionthatforeignbuyerswillbehappytocommunicateinEnglish,andthatawarenessofotherlanguagesisnotthereforeapriority.Inthe1960s,overtwo-thirdsofBritishfirmsdealingwithnon-English-speakingcustomerswereusingEnglishforoutgoingcorresponddence;manyhadtheirsalesliteratureonlyinEnglish;andasmanyas70percentofemployeescannotcommunicateinthecustomers'languages.AsimilarproblemwasidentifiedinotherEnglish-speakingcountries,notablytheUSA,AustraliaandNewZealand.Andnon-English-speakingcountrieswerebynomeansexempt--althoughthewidespreaduseofEnglishasanalternativelanguagemadethemlessopentothechargeofinsularity.Thecriticismandpublicitygiventothisproblemsincethe1960sseemstohavegreatlyimprovedthesituation.Industrialtrainingschemeshavepromotedanincreaseinlinguisticandculturalawareness.Manyfirmsnowhavetheirowntranslationservices;totakejustoneexampleinBritain,RowntreeMackintoshnowpublishtheirdocumentsinsixlanguages(English,French,German,Dutch,ItalianandXhosa).Somefirmsrunpart-timelanguagecoursesinthelanguagesofthecountrieswithwhichtheyaremostinvolved;someproducetheirowntechnicalglossaries,toensureconsistencywhenmaterialisbeingtranslated.Itisnowmuchmorereadilyappreciatedthatmarketingeffortscanbedelayed,damaged,ordisruptedbyafailuretotakeaccountofthelinguisticneedsofthecustomer.ThechangesinawarenesshavebeenmostmarkedinEnglish-speakingcountries,wheretherealizationhasgraduallydawnedthatbynomeanseveryoneintheworldknowsEnglishwellenoughtonegotiateinit.ThisisespeciallyaproblemwhenEnglishisnotanofficiallanguageofpublicadministration,asinmostpartsoftheFarEast,Russia,EasternEurope,theArabworld,LatinAmericaandFrench-speakingAfrica.EvenincaseswhereforeigncustomerscanspeakEnglishquitewell,itisoftenforgottenthattheymaynotbeabletounderstandittotherequiredlevel-bearinginmindtheregionalandsocialvariationwhichpermeatesspeechandwhichcancausemajorproblemsoflisteningcomprehension.Insecuringunderstanding,how"we"speakto"them"isjustasimportant,itappears,ashow"they"speakto"us".

{{B}}Set5{{/B}}{{B}}TheScienceofAnthropology{{/B}}Throughvariousmethodsofresearch,anthropologiststrytofittogetherthepiecesofthehumanpuzzle--todiscoverhowhumanitywasfirstachieved,whatmadeitbranchoutindifferentdirections,andwhyseparatesocietiesbehavesimilarlyinsomeways,butquitedifferentlyinotherways,Anthropology,whichemergedasanindependentscienceinthelateeighteenthcentury,hastwomaindivisions:PhysicalAnthropologyandCulturalAnthropology.PhysicalAnthropologyfocusesonhumanevolutionandvariationandusesmethodsofphysiology,genetics,andecology.CulturalanthropologyfocusesoncultureandincludesArchaeology,socialanthropology,andlinguistics.Physicalanthropologistsaremostconcernedwithhumanbiology.Physicalanthropologistsaredetectiveswhosemissionistosolvethemysteryofhowhumanscametobehuman.Theyaskquestionsabouttheeventsthatledatree-dwellingpopulationofanimalstoevolveintotwo-leggedbeingswithpowertolearn--apowerthatwecallintelligence.Physicalanthropologistsstudythefossilsandorganicremainsofonce-livingprimates.Theyalsostudytheconnectionsbetweenhumansandotherprimatesthatarestillliving.Monkeys,apes,andhumanshavemoreincommonwithoneanotherphysicallythantheydowithotherkindsofanimals,Inthelabanthropologistsusethemethods,ofphysiologyandgeneticstoinvestigatethecompositionofbloodchemistryforcluestotherelationshipofhumanstovariousprimates.Somestudytheanimalsinthewildtofindoutwhatbehaviorstheysharewithhumans.Othersspeculateabouthowthebehaviorofnonhumanprimatesmighthaveshapedhumanbodilyneedsandhabits.Awell-knownfamilyofphysicalanthropologists,theLeakeys,conductedresearchinEastAfricaindicatingthathumanevolutioncenteredthereratherthanAsia.In1931.LouisLeakeyandhiswifeMaryLeakeybeganexcavatingatOlduvaiGorgeinTanzania.whereoverthenextfortyyearstheydiscoveredstonetoolsandhominidevidencethatpushedbackthedatesforearlyhumanstoover375millionyearsago.Theirson,RichardLeakey,discoveredyetothertypesofhominidskullsinKenya,whichhewroteaboutinOrigins(1979)andOriginsReconsidered(1992),Likephysicalanthropologists,culturalanthropologistsstudycluesabouthumanlifeinthedistantpast;however,culturalanthropologistsalsolookatthesimilaritiesanddifferencesamonghumancommunitiestoday.Someculturalanthropologistsworkinthefield,livingandworkingamongpeopleinsocietiesthatdifferfromtheirown.Anthropologistsdoingfieldworkoftenproduceallethnography,awrittendescriptionofthedailyactivitiesofmen,women,andchildrenthattellsthestoryofthesociety'scommunitylifeasawhole.SomeculturalanthropologistsdonotworkinthefieldbutratheratresearchuniversitiesandMuseumsdoingthecomparativeandinterpretivepartofthejob.Theseanthropologists,calledethnologists,siftthroughtheethnographieswrittenbyfieldanthropologistsandtrytodiscovercrossculmturalpatternsinmarriage,childrearing,religiousbeliefsandpractices,warfare--anysubjectthatconstitutesthehumanexperience.Theyoftenusetheirfindingstoarguefororagainstparticularhypothesesaboutpeopleworldwide.AculturalanthropologistwhoachievedworldwidefamewasMargaretMead.In1923,MeadwenttoSamoatopursueherfirstfieldworkassignment--astudythatresultedinherwidelyreadbookComingofAgesinSamoa(1928).Meadpublishedtenmajorworksduringherlongcareer,movingfromstudiesofchildrearinginthePacifictotheculturalandbiologicalbasesofgender,thenatureofculturalchange,thestructureandfunctioningofcomplexsocieties,andracerelations.Meadremainedapioneerinherwillingnesstotacklesubjectsofmajorintellectualconsequence,todevelopnewtechnologiesforresearch,andtothinkofnewwaysthatanthropologycouldservesociety.Glossary:primates:theorderofmammalsthatincludesapesandhumanshominid:thefamilyofprimatesofwhichhumansaretheonlylivingspecies

Study Habits In college in any class, you will find widely different types of people, not only in personality but also in scholastic attitude. This same range from one extreme to the other can also be observed in their study habits. In fact, students can be divided into distinct groups based on their study habits. There are basically three categories: the perpetual studier, the average studier, and the crammer. The perpetual studier is a rare breed indeed. But they exist and they aren't very hard to {{U}}spot{{/U}}. They usually sit in the front of the class and write about three pages of notes a day regardless of how much material the instructor covers. They don't talk to anyone except to answer questions, and that only at the end of class when the lecture is over. When a perpetual studier goes home, before he does anything else, he takes out all his books and begins studying for the classes that he has the next day. He studies until really late at night, stopping only once or twice for a quick snack. When he is informed that he has a test, he will begin preparing for it at least five days in advance unless, of course, he is told less than five days prior to the test, in which case he will study until he has covered all the notes he has at least ten times or until he knows the material backwards and forwards. Although the perpetual studier does well in school, he usually misses out on social life. There are a selected few who maintain something of a social life, but this is rare. Most of them never meet new people except in situations where they are forced to, such as meeting their roommates at the start of school. However, they will graduate with a 4.0 grade point average and be successful in life—as long as they don't choose careers that require many social skills. The majority of students fall into a category that I refer to as the average studier. This person studies sufficiently but doesn't work more than necessary. When he studies for a test, he will {{U}}look over{{/U}} the notes taken, reread appropriate pages in the textbook, and study with a friend sometimes. Overall, he may put in anywhere from two to six hours a day studying during the week leaving Friday and Saturday for his social life and then spend from four to eight hours studying on Sunday. The average studier takes his education seriously and will study with friends much more often than will the perpetual studier. He will have a good time getting an education. For him the line between education and having a good time is a lot thinner than with the perpetual studier. The average studier will leave college with at least a solid education and will be much more socially adept than the perpetual studier. The third type of studier is the crammer. A. [■] This type of person studies only when the threat of taking that class over is very great. When he studies for a test, he doesn't begin until the night before or the morning of the test. B. [■] It amazes me how people like this manage to get by with the extremely small amount of studying they do, but somehow {{U}}they do{{/U}}. C. [■] Their homework is last on their list of things to do. If they are bored and they are on a borderline D, they might do some homework. But before they do such a deed, they will {{U}}rack{{/U}} their brains trying to think of something else to do. D. [■] It is amazing to watch a crammer trying to avoid doing homework. Cleaning the room even takes precedence over homework—not to mention sleep. The crammers are easily recognized in any classroom. They sit in the place farthest from the teacher, and they usually group together. They seem to have the attitude that they are in class to do nothing but have a good time and attract attention. They enjoy disrupting class, and if left alone they will infect a classroom much like cancer infects a body. They are the teachers' nightmares, and there is always at least one in every class. But at the very last minute—before the axe falls, so to speak—they will hit the books. Although some of the crammers won't last for four years, most of them will graduate. They will leave college, though, with little education and few social skills.

DEFORESTATION IN NORTH AMERICA1 The land area of the United States and Canada is just over 4.8 billion acres. When large numbers of Europeans began to arrive in the eighteenth century, almost one-third of that area was covered with old-growth forests. In the eastern half of the continent, nearly 90 percent of the land was thick with forests of elm, ash, beech, maple, oak, and hickory. By the end of the nineteenth century, after several decades of intensive deforestation, only half of the original forests remained. 2 During the first two centuries of European colonization, settlement was concentrated along the East Coast, having almost no effect on the vast forests covering the continent. Then, in the first half of the nineteenth century, agriculture expanded and settlers began to move westward in search of land for new farms. Land for agriculture came almost exclusively from clearing forests. The demand for farmland and timber continued to soar, and by 1850, more than 100 million acres of old-growth forest had been cut or burned off in the Northeast, the Southeast, the Great Lakes region, and along the St. Lawrence River. 3 Along with agriculture, industrialization was a major cause of deforestation. The Industrial Revolution was fueled by North America's abundance of wood, as iron makers relied on charcoal, or charred wood, to fire their furnaces. Hardwoods such as oak produced the best charcoal, which charcoal burners made by slowly burning logs in kilns until {{U}}they{{/U}} were reduced to concentrated carbon. It took eight tons of wood to make two tons of charcoal to smelt one ton of iron. Thus, the {{U}}toll{{/U}} on the forests was high, as countless acres were cut to feed the furnaces of the iron industry. 4 The transportation technology of the Industrial Revolution contributed greatly to deforestation. The river steamboats that came into operation after 1830 had a {{U}}voracious{{/U}} appetite for wood. To keep their wheels turning, steamboats typically took on fuel twice a day. The wood was supplied by thousands of"{{U}}wood hawks{{/U}}" along the banks of the Ohio and Mississippi with stacks of cut firewood. Annual consumption of wood on riverboats continued to increase until 1865. Consequently, river valleys that had the heaviest traffic were stripped of their forests. 5 After 1860, immigration and westward expansion {{U}}surged{{/U}}, and railroads swept over the continent. Clean-burning hardwood was the preferred fuel of the "iron horses," which required the cutting of 215,000 acres of woodland to stay in operation for one year. Not only did wood fuel the steam engines, but enormous amounts of oak and locust also went into the manufacture of railcars, ties, fencing, bridges, and telegraph poles. Railroads in the United States and Canada stretched from coast to coast by 1885, and each additional mile of railroad meant at least two more miles of fencing and 2,500 ties. 6 Other major consumers of forest products included ordinary homeowners. {{U}}More than four out of five of the houses constructed in the early nineteenth century-from log cabins to clapboard cottages-were built mainly of wood and roofed with wooden shingles.{{/U}} All were filled with wooden furniture. Two-thirds of all households in North America were heated by open, wood-burning fireplaces, and it took between 10 and 20 acres of forest to keep a single fireplace burning for one year. 7 Throughout the century, the timber industry continued to supply the single most valuable raw material for a rapidly expanding population. Between 1840 and 1860, the annual production of lumber rose from 1.6 million to 8 billion board feet. This increase was made possible by the widespread application of steam power. Wood-fueled steam engines powered the sawmills, moved and barked the logs, and finished the boards. Railroad lines were now built right into the forests so that felled logs could be shipped directly to market. These innovations had their greatest impact in the Great Lakes region. By 1890 the technology of the timber industry had triumphed over the natural abundance of the forests, and woodlands that had once seemed endless were now depleted.

TheEvolutionofthePhotofitSecuritytechnology:Anewtypeofcomputerisedphotofitsystemtakesanovelevolutionaryapproachtogeneratingimagesofsuspects.Ifyouhaveevertriedtodescribesomeone'sfaceindetail,youwillunderstandwhythe"photofit"compositeimagesusedbythepolicelooksododgy.Inrecentyears,computerised"E-Fit"systemshavehelpedimprovetheaccuracyoftheseimagesbyallowingwitnessestochoosefromawiderrangeoffacialfeatures.ButresearchersattheUniversityofStirlinginScotlandfoundthat,despitetheseimprovements,peoplestillhaveahardtimeconstructingrecognisablefaces--especiallyifthereisadelayofmorethanafewhoursbetweenseeingthefaceandgeneratingthecomposite.Theproblemisthatpeopletendtorecognisefacesaswholeentities,ratherthanasseparatefeatures.Sopickingfromarangeofeyes,nosesandmouthsisnotnecessarilythemostsuitableapproach,saysCharlieFrowd,apsychologistattheUniversityofStirling.Nextyear,however,Britishpoliceareexpectedtobegintrialsofanewcomputerisedsystem,calledEvoFIT,developedbyDr.FrowdandhiscolleaguePeterHancock.Itusesanevolutionaryapproach,knownasageneticalgorithm,to"evolve"facesratherthanpiecethemtogether."Theprocessisentirelynon-verbalandtakesafractionofthenormaltime",claimsDr.Frowd.Awitnessisshownanarrayof60differentfaceswithrandomfeatures.Havingstudiedthemclosely,thewitnessisaskedtochoosethesiximagesthatmostcloselyresemblethepersontheyaretryingtodescribe.Thesesixarethenusedtogenerateanothersetof60,byswitchingfeatureesbetweensomeoftheimagesandbymakingrandomchangestoothers.Thewitnessisthenaskedtorepeatthetask,whereuponanewbatchoffacesisgenerated,andsoon.Inevolutionaryterms,thisprocessisknownas"geneticcrossoverandmutation",andisapowerfulwaytosearchalargenumberofpossibilitiesforaparticularsolution.Byallowingtheusertosteertheselectionprocess,theprogramisabletogenerateagoodlikenessfortheoriginalfaceafterjustafewcycles.Inoneofitsearlyversions,EvoFITwasusedbypoliceinNorthamptonshirewhoweretryingtocatchaviolentattacker.Theattackerwasnevercaught,buttheseniorinvestigatingofficer,SuperintendentPaulSpick,saysthewitnessinvolvedfoundthenewsoftwaremuchquickerandeasiertousethantraditionalE-Fitsystems.Itwasalsomoreaccurate,thefinalimagecausedthewitnessvisibledistresswhendisplayed.AfurtherimportantadvantageofEvoFITovertraditionalcompositesisthatanimagecanbegeneratedevenifthewitnesscanonlyprovideasketchyverbaldescription.TheresearchershavesincemadeanumberoffurtherimprovementstotheirsystemandarenowintheprocessofcommercializingitinpartnershipwithABM,aBritishfirmwhichsuppliespoliceforceswithphotofit,oneoftheleadingcomputerizedcompositesystems.Theimagesaremorerealistic,andthesystemcangeneratethree-quarterangleviewsoftheface,whichareeasiertodistinguishthandirectfrontalviews,saysDr.Frowd.Histeamhasalsofoundthatbycombiningtheimagesgeneratedbydifferentwitnesses,orevenfromasinglewitness,itispossibletogetanevenbetterlikeness.Thiscouldbeparticularlyusefulwhenmultiplewitnessescomeforwardandthepoliceareunsurewhichoftheimagestheyproduceisthemostaccurate.Inthelatestversion,witnessesaregivenaselectionoffaceshapestochoosefrombeforefacialfeaturesareadded.Thismakesitlesslikelythatthecorrectfacialfeatureswillberejectedsimplybecausetheyareonthewrong-shapedface.Thesemodificationsappeartomakeallthedifference.Inrecentexperiments,Dr.FrowdandDr.HancockcomparedEvoFITwiththecomputerizedsystemscurrentlyinusebyaskingvolunteerstoconstructanimageofafacetwodaysafterseeingit,andthenshowingtheresultingimagetopeoplewhowerefamiliarwiththepersondepicted.Withtraditionalcomposites,thepersonwascorrectlyidentifiedabout4%ofthetime;thefigureroseto25%withEvoFITimages.NextyearABMwillperforminhouseevaluationsofthesystemandwillthenteamupwithpoliceforcesforfurthertrials.Althoughthingslookpromisingsofar,twothingsinparticularneedfurthertesting,saysLeslieBowie,ABM'sdirectorofresearch.DotheEvoFITimagesdistractwitnessesorcontaminatetheirmemoriesofthefacetheyaretryingtorecall?AndwhileEvoFIThasperformedwellinthecalmconditionsofthelaboratory,howwillitcopewithreal-lifewitnesses,whoareoftentraumatizedbytheirexperiences?Ifitcanaddressthesetwoquestions,EvoFITcouldbethenextstepintheevolutionofthephotofit.

TheImpressionistsInApril1870,anartexhibitopenedinParisfeaturingfamousandpricelessworksofart.However,atthetime,nooneknewthatthesepaintingswouldonedaybeconsideredmasterpieces.Thepaintingsandthepainterswerevirtuallyunknownatthetimeandwouldremainthatwayforseveralyears.Inthenineteenthcentury,FrenchartwasdominatedbytheAcademyofFineArts.EveryyeartheacademyheldanartshowcalledLeSalon.In1863,theAcademyrejectedoneofthepaintingsofEdouardManet.Manetandagroupofotherindependentartistsorganizedtheirownshow,whichtheycalledSalondesRefuses(SalonoftheRejected),whichopenedonApril15,1874.AnewspapercriticnamedLouisLeroyvisitedthegalleryandwasnotpleasedwithwhathesaw.OnepaintingofboatsinaharboratdawnbyClaudeMonetparticularlyenragedhim.ItwascalledImpression:Sunset.Leroywrotethatthispiece,andinfactmostofthepiecesintheshow,lookedlikeimpressions--atermforapreliminary,unfinishedsketchmadebeforeapaintingisdone.Leroy'snewspaperreviewwasjokinglycalled"TheExhibitionoftheImpressionists".WithinafewyearsofLeroy'sreview,theterm"Impressionists"hadclearlystuck,notasatermofderisionbutasabadgeofhonor,andanewmovementwasborn.TheImpressionistmovementincludedtheFrenchpaintersEdouardManet,ClaudeMonet,PierreAugusteRenoir,EdgarDegas,PaulCezanne,andtheAmericanpainterMaryCassatt.ThetechniquesandstandardsemployedwithintheImpressionistmovementvariedwidely,andthoughtheartistssharedacoreofvalues,therealgluewhichboundthemovementtogetherwasitsspiritofrebellionandindependence.ThisspiritisclearwhenyoucompareImpressionistpaintingswithtraditionalFrenchpaintingsofthetime.Traditionalpainterstendedtopaintratherseriousscenesfromhistoryandmythology."ManyImpressionistpaintingsfeaturepleasantscenesofurbanlife,celebratingtheleisuretimethattheIndustrialRevolutionhadwonforthemiddleclass,asshowninRenoir'sluminouspaintingluncheonoftheBoatingParty.Inthatfamouspainting,thesunfiltersthroughtheorange-stripedawningbathingeverythingandeveryoneatthepartyinitswarmlight.Renoironcesaidthatpaintingsshouldbe...likable,joyous,andpretty."Hesaid,"Thereareenoughunpleasantthingsinthisworld.Wedon'thavetopaintthemaswell."ItisthisjoyoflifethatmakesRenoir'spaintingssodistinctive.TheImpressionistsdelightedinpaintinglandscapes(exceptforEdgarDegas,whopreferredpaintingindoorscenes,andMaryCassatt,whomainlypaintedportraitsofmothersandchildren).Traditionalpainters,too,paintedlandscapes,buttheirlandscapestendedtobesomberanddark.TheImpressionists'landscapessparklewithlight.Impressionistsinsistedthattheirworksbe"truetonature".Whentheypaintedlandscapes,theycarriedtheirpaintsandcanvasesoutdoorsinordertocapturetheever-changinglight.Traditionalpaintersgenerallymadepreliminarysketchesoutsidebutworkedonthepaintingsthemselvesintheirstudios."Classic"Impressionistpaintingsareofteneasytospotbecauseofthetechniquesusedbythepainters.Oneofthefirst"rules"oftheImpressionists,thatthecolorsshouldbedroppedpureonthecanvasinsteadofgettingmixedonthepalette,wasrespectedbyonlyafewofthemandforonlyacoupleofyears,butmostImpressionistsmixedtheirpaintsaslittleaspossible.Theybelievedthatitwasbettertoallowtheeyetomixthecolorsasitviewedthemonthecanvas.Thetraditionaltechniqueatthetimewastomakesketchesoroutlinesofthesubjectbeforepaintingthem.Generally,Impressionistspainteddirectlyontothecanvaswithoutsketches.Impressioniststendedtopaintwithshort,thickstrokesofpaintsshapedlikecommas.Whiletraditionalpainterspaidattentiontodetails,Impressionistsvaluedoveralleffect.Traditionalpaintersalwaystriedtohidetheirbrushstrokes,butImpressionistsleftbrushstrokesonthecanvasfortheworldtosee.Unliketraditionalpainters,Impressionistsappliedonelayerofpaintontopofthelastonewithoutwaitingforthepainttodry.Thesetechniquescreatedpaintingsthatseemedstrangeandunfinishedtothegeneralpublicwhentheywerefirstpainted,butaremuchlovedinourtime.Glossary:palette:aboardwithaholeforthethumbonwhichpaintersmixtheircolors