Whose Grave Is This Anyway? There are many legends about the world famous Egyptian Pharaohs' tombs, which have lain silent for thousands of years along the Nero River. In reality though, this silence has constantly been disturbed by a great variety of people. While considering their different motivations in doing so, we must examine whether disturbing the ancient tombs is justifiable or worthy of condemnation. A. [■] When Howard Carter and his party opened the tomb of the Egyptian king Tutankhamen in 1922, there was rejoicing around the world. B. [■] The tomb was largely intact and not seriously pillaged by ancient grave robbers, so it still contained the wonderful artifacts that had been buried with the young king more than three millennia earlier. C. [■] Over the next several years Carter and his team systematically photographed and catalogued the objects from the tomb, then transported them to the Cairo Museum.D. [■] There is a certain irony in this story that raises complex ethical questions. Why are Carter and his {{U}}party{{/U}} not called grave robbers? Why are their actions in stripping the tomb acceptable—even praiseworthy—when similar behavior by common thieves would be deplored? No matter who opens a tomb and takes away its contents, that person is violating the intentions of {{U}}those{{/U}} who sealed the tomb originally. No matter what the motivation, a human body that was meant to rest in peace for all time has been disturbed. Should this not make us feel uncomfortable? From the beginning, some were uneasy about the propriety of unearthing Tutankhamen's remains. When Lord Carnarvon, Carter's sponsor, died suddenly from a mosquito bite, and several others connected with the project experienced tragedies, rumors arose about the "curse of King Tut". But Carter himself died peacefully many years later, and the talk subsided. {{U}}Perhaps it is the passage of time that transforms grave robbing into archaeology.{{/U}} Carter would no doubt have been outraged if, say, his grandmother's coffin had been dug up to strip the body of its jewelry. But after three thousand years Tutankhamen has no living relatives to protest his disturbance. Perhaps it is a question of the words we use to describe such ancient finds. We speak of Tutankhamen's "mummy", and mummy is a clean, historical-sounding word. Parents bring their children to museums to see the mummies and mummy cases. We can almost forget that a mummy is the embalmed body of a dead human being, pulled out of its coffin so that we can marvel at the coffin and sometimes the body itself. Or, perhaps the difference between grave robbing and archaeology lies in the motives of the perpetrators. Common thieves are motivated by greed, by their quest for money to be made by selling stolen objects. Carter and his team did not sell the treasures from Tutankhamen's tomb but stored them safely in the Cairo Museum, where art lovers from around the world can see them. {{U}}They{{/U}} were, in effect, making a glorious gift to the people of our century and centuries to come (while at the same time, one must point out, acquiring significant glory for themselves). The basic issue is a {{U}}clash{{/U}} of cultural values. To the Egyptians, it was normal and correct to bury their finest artworks with the exalted dead. To us, the idea of all that beauty being locked away in the dark forever seems an appalling waste. We want to bring it into the light, to have it as part of our precious artistic {{U}}heritage{{/U}}. Almost no one, having seen these magnificent treasures, would seriously propose they be put back in the tomb and sealed up. In the end, inevitably, our cultural values will prevail simply because we are still here and the ancient Egyptians are not. After three thousand years, Tutankhamen's grave really isn't his anymore. Whether right or wrong, it belongs to us.

{{B}}ReadingSectionDirections{{/B}}Inthissectionyouwillreadfivepassagesandanswerreadingcomprehensionquestionsabouteachpassage.Mostquestionsareworthonepoint,butthelastquestionineachsetisworthmorethanonepoint.Thedirectionsindicatehowmanypointsyoumayreceive.Youwillhave60minutestoreadallofthepassagesandanswerthequestions.Somepassagesincludeawordorphrasethatisunderlinedinblue.Clickonthewordorphrasetoseeadefinitionoranexplanation.Whenyouwanttomoveontothenextquestion,clickonNext.Youcanskipquestionsandgobacktothemlateraslongasthereistimeremaining.Ifyouwanttoreturntopreviousquestions,clickonBack.YoucanclickonReviewatanytimeandthereviewscreenwillshowyouwhichquestionyouhaveansweredandwhichyouhavenot.Fromthisreviewscreen,youmaygodirectlytoanyquestionyouhavealreadyseeninthereadingsection.Whenyouarereadytocontinue,clickontheContinueicon.{{B}}Set1{{/B}}{{B}}ScienceFiction?NotAnyMore{{/B}}Sciencefictionhasoftenbeenthesourceofinspirationfornewtechnologies.Theexoskeletonsandhead-mounteddisplaysfeaturedinthefilm"Aliens",forexample,spawnedanumberofmilitaryfundedprojectstotrytocreatesimilartechnologies.Automaticslidingdoorsmightneverhavebecomepopularhadtheynotappearedonthetelevisionseries"StarTrek".Andthepopularityofflip-topor"clamshell"mobilephonesmaystemfromthedesiretolooklikeCaptainKirkflippingopenhiscommunicatoronthesameprogram.Nowitseemsthat"StarTrek"hasdoneitagain.Thismonth,AmericansoldiersinIraqwillbegintrialsofadeviceinspiredbythe"commbadge"featuredin"StarTrek:TheNextGeneration".LikecrewmembersofthestarshipEnterprise,soldierswillbeabletotalktoothermembersoftheirunitjustbytappingandthenspeakingintoasmallbadgewornonthechest.Whatsetsthecommbadgeapartfromamerewalkie-talkie,andappealsto"StarTrek"fans,isthesystem'sapparentintelligence.Itworksoutwhoyouarecallingfromspokencommands,andconnectsyouinstantly.Thesystem,developedbyVoceraCommunicationsofCupertino,California,usesacombinationofWi-FiwirelessnetworkingandVoice-overInternetProtocol(VoIP)technologiestolinkupthebadgesviaacentralserver,akintoaswitchboard.Thebadgesarealreadybeingusedin80largeinstitutions,mostofthemhospitals,toreplaceoverheadpagingsystems,saysBrentLang,Vocera'svice-president.Likeitsscience-fictioncounterpart,thebadgeisdesignedsothatallfunctionscanbecardedoutbypressingasinglebutton.Onpressingit,thecallergivesacommandandspecifiesthenameofapersonorgroupofpeople,suchas"callDr.Smith"or"locatethenearestanesthesiologist".Voice-recognitionsoftwareinterpretsthecommandsandlocatestheappropriatepersonorgroup,basedonwhicheverWi-Fibase-stationtheyareclosestto.Thepersonreceivingthecallthenhearsanaudiblealertstatingthenameofthecallerand,ifheorshewishestotakethecall,respondsbytappingthebadgeandstartingtospeak.Thathighlightsakeydifferencebetweenthe"StarTrek"commbadgeandthereal-lifeversion:Vocera'simplementationallowspeopletorejectincomingcalls,ratherthanhavingthevoiceofthecallerpatchedthroughautomatically.ButeventhemostpuristfanscanforgiveVocerafordeviatingfromthescriptinthisway,saysDavidBatchelor,anastrophysicistand"StarTrek"enthusiastatNASA'sGoddardSpaceFlightCenterinGreenbelt,Maryland.Forthereare,henotes,somecuriousaspectstothebehaviorofthecommbadgesin"StarTrek".WhenthecaptainoftheEnterprisesays"Picardtosick-bay:Medicalemergencyonthebridge",forexample,hisbadgesomehowconnectshimtothesick-baybeforehehasstatedthedestinationofthecall.Allowingbadgeuserstorejectincomingcallsiftheyarebusy,ratherthanbeingconnectedinstantly,wasafeatureaddedattherequestofcustomers,saysMr.Lang.Butinalmostallotherrespectsthebadgesworkjustliketheirfictionalcounterparts.Thisisnotverysurprising,saysLawrenceKrauss,anastrophysicistatCaseWesternReserveUniversityinCleveland,Ohio,andtheauthorof"ThePhysicsofStarTrek".Insciencefiction,andparticularlyin"StarTrek",mostproblemshavetechnologicalfixes.Sometimes,itseems,thosefixescanbeappliedtoreal-worldproblemstoo.Vocera'ssystemisparticularlywellsuitedtohospitals,saysChristineTarver,aclinicalmanageratE1CaminoHospitalinMountainView,California.Itallowsclinicalstafftoreacheachotherfarmorequicklythanwithbeepersandoverheadpagers.ArecentstudycarriedoutatSt.AgnesHealthcareinBaltimore,Maryland,assessedtheamountoftimespentbyclinicalstafftryingtogetholdofeachother,bothbeforeandaftertheinstallationoftheVocerasystem.Itconcludedthatthebadgeswouldsavethestaffatotalof3,400hourseachyear.Nursingstaffoftenendupplayingphonetagwithdoctors,whichwastesvaluabletime,saysMsTamer.Andalthoughpeopleusingthebadgessometimeslookasthoughtheyaretalkingtothemselves,shesays,manydoctorspreferitbecauseitenablesthemtodealwithqueriesmoreefficiently.Thesystemcanalsoforwardcallstomobilephones;itcanbeindividuallytrainedtoensurethatitunderstandsuserswithstrongaccents;anditcanevenbeconfiguredwithpersonalizedringtones.InIraq,soldierswillusetheVocerabadgesinconjunctionwithbase-stationsmountedonHumveearmoredvehicles.Beyondmedicalandmilitaryuses,Vocerahopestosellthetechnologytoretailersandhotels.Andthefirm'sengineersarenowextendingthesystemtoenablethebadgestoretrievestoredinformation,suchaspatientrecordsorinformationaboutaparticulardrag,inresponsetospokencommands.Theirinspiration?Yetanother"StarTrek"technology:theship'stalking,ship'scomputer.

LaserPointersAlaserpointerisasmall(oftenbattery-operated)laserdevicedesignedforpointingatobjectsbyilluminatingthemwithacollimatedvisiblelaserbeam.Mostlaserpointers,particularlythecheapones,containasmallGalnP/AIGaInPlaserdiodeoperatingsomewhereintheredspectralregion.Somesignificantlymoreexpensivepointersemitgreenorevenbluelightandnormallycontainasmalldiode-pumpedsolidstatelaserwithanonlinearcrystalforfrequencydoubling.Atypicaluseofahand-heldlaserpointeristopointatsomescreenorchartduringapresentation,e.g.aconferencetalk.Thisisconvenientbecauseitcanbedonefromalargedistanceandrequiresonlyarathersmalldevice.However,thevisibilityofthegeneratedspotonthescreenisoftenpoor(particularlyforredlaserpointerswithrelativelylongemissionwavelength),andafastmovinglightspotcanhaveasomewhatnervousappearance.Therefore,somepeoplewouldpreferanold-fashionedtelescopicpointingdeviceforpresentations.Laserpointerscanbeusefule.g.foraligningsomemachinery,orforcertainopticaldistancemeasurements.Theapparentbrightnessoftheilluminatedspotstronglydependsonthewavelengthoftheemittedlight.Mostdevicesoperateintheredspectralregion,wherethesensitivityoftheeyerapidlydecreaseswithincreasingwavelength.Deviceswith650-nmoutputappearabouttwiceasbrightasthoseemittingthesamepowerat670nm,and635-nmdevicesstillabouttwotimesbrighter.However,theshorter-wavelengthlaserpointersaretypicallymoreexpensive.Thisisparticularlytrueforgreenlasers,whicharequitesignificantlybrighterthantheirredcounterparts,butstillcostquitealot.Theyinvolveadiode-pumpedsolidstatelaserandafrequencydoubler.Duetothetypicallypoorconversionefficiencyofthefrequencydoubleratlowpowerlevels,hundredsofmilliwattsofinfrared(typically1064-nm)lightarerequiredtogenerateafewmilliwattsinthegreen,andthebatterieswillaccordinglynotlastverylong,exceptiftheyarecomparativelyheavy.Laypersonsoftenaskwhatistherangeofalaserpointer,andrespondingtothisinterestsomeproducersspecifysomemoreorlessquestionablenumber.Ifthequestionismeanttobehowfarthelightofalaserpointercanpropagate,theanswerisofcoursethatthereisnolimit,aslongasthelightisnotabsorbedorscatteredawayintheatmosphere.Ofcourse,muchofthatlightcangetfromearthtothemoonwithoutproblems.However,thebeamareawilleventuallybecomelargerduetothebeamdivergence,sothattheintensitye.g.onascreenwillbereducedeveniftheoverallpowerstaysconstant.Onemayalsounderstandtherangeofalaserpointerasthemaximumdistanceoverwhichonecansendthebeamtosomescreenwhilestillseeingtheilluminatedspotfromthedistance.Thatkindofrangeisnormallynotlimitedbythebeamdivergencebutbytheoverallopticalpower(apartfromthewavelengthandlevelofambientlight),sincetheissueisnotthecomparativelyminordivergenceonthewayfromthelaserpointertothescreen,butratherthehugedivergenceofthescatteredlightonthewayback.Therefore,someonestandingnexttotheilluminatedscreenwouldeasilyseethespotwhenitisalreadyhardlyperceivablefromthepositionofthelaserpointer.Therehavebeenextensivedebatesonlasersafetyissuesassociatedwithlaserpointers.Typicaloutputpowersareafewmilliwatts--normallybelow5mWinordertocomplywithsafetyclassⅢ,andsome-timesbelow1mWforclassⅡ.Directstaringintoa1-mWbeamcanbeirritatingfortheeye:itcancausetemporaryflashblindness.However,nobodywouldnormallydothatlongenoughtocauseseriouseyedamage.Nevertheless,greatcareshouldbetakene.g.whenchildrenareplayingwithlaserpointers,iflaserpointersareatallconsideredtobesuitableastoys.Significanthazardscouldarisee.g.ifsomebodywalkingdownstairsoracardriverisirritatedbyalaserbeam.Therearesomereportssayingthatcheapgreenlaserpointersaresoldwhichdonothaveafiltertoeliminatetheinfraredlight,andthereforecanemithundredsofmilliwattsintheinfraredspectralregion.Thisisobviouslyaterriblesafetyhazard;aneyedirectlyhitbysuchabeamcouldbedestroyedwithinlessthanasecond.Glossary:diode:anelectronicdevicethatrestrictscurrentflowchieflytoonedirection

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Sofonisba Anguissola: A Woman Painter of the Renaissance [■] The Renaissance, which began in the 1300s in northern Italy, marked the rebirth of classical learning and knowledge. New ideas were also introduced during this period in the arts and sciences. [■] Dates varied depending upon the end of the Middle Ages in geographic regions. [■] Italy is thought to have been the birthplace of the Renaissance and Florence, a city in north central Italy, is considered to have been the city where the Renaissance began. [■] ? The year 1500 divided the Early Renaissance from the Late Renaissance. Sofonisba Anguissola is considered to be a Late Renaissance child because she had been born in 1532. Sofonisba"s father was a wealthy nobleman and she was the oldest of seven children in the family. The town in which she grew up, Cremona, was a northern Italian town located in Lombardy not too far from Florence. Her town had been founded in 218 B.C. by the Romans, and has become well known for its square and tower dating from the Middle Ages. Throughout the years artists and musicians had gravitated to Cremona and it developed as an important violin manufacturing center. During the Renaissance young men received formal schooling . They could serve apprenticeships for several years to further learn their professions. Young women, however, were not provided the same educational opportunities. Young Italian women were expected to learn homemaking skills, marry by the time they were thirty, and become mothers at early ages. Sofonisba Anguissola was a young Italian woman who did not follow the course society expected. Sofonisba"s family was a family of artists but she was the first female to show interest in painting. She was extremely fortunate that her father recognized her artistic talents and the artistic talents of her sisters. Her father arranged for Sofonisba to be taught painting along with feminine skills of needlework and homemaking. At the age of fourteen she began classes with Bernardino Campi, a Cremona portrait painter who had begun painting at an early age and had combined the styles of Raphael and Titian into a style of his own. As a paid guest in Campi"s home for approximately one year, Sofonisba painted and sketched daily. She learned to copy the great works of art in the local churches to learn her profession as all aspiring painters did. During the time she studied with Campi she also learned about oils, pigments, and canvas preparation. When Campi moved to Milan, Sonfonisba continued her studies for nearly three years with Barnardino Gatti who was a painter of religious pictures for local Lombardy churches. When Sofonisba was twenty-two her father arranged for her to study in Rome, and through his contacts was introduced to Michaelangelo. She met with Michaelangelo informally so he could critique her work and provide her with some of his sketches for copying. ? While Sofonisba was studying in Rome, Spain"s King Philip Ⅱ invited her to move to Madrid and become the Queen"s art instructor. Sofonisba moved to Spain and lived there fourteen years, giving the Queen lessons in painting and drawing, acting as governess for the royal family"s two children, and completing portraits of the King, Queen, and their children. At the age of thirty-eight, Sofonisba married a Sicilian nobleman, a marriage arranged by the King. After the death of her husband, Sofonisba returned to Italy to continue her painting. On the voyage home she met her second husband, an Italian ship"s captain from Genoa. Sofonisba continued to paint after her marriage. She died at the age of ninety-three on the island of Sicily. ? Sofonisba"s family background and the education that had been made available to her influenced the type of paintings she became known for. She is considered a Mannerist painter because that style of painting was developed during the 1500s and Mannerist paintings display complex compositions and emotions. Often painted in informal domestic settings, Sofonisba"s portraits were realistic and portrayed expression, natural emotion, and interpersonal relationships. Throughout her life, Sofonisba assumed a dual role a painter and one who was painted. Several of her portraits were self portraits, painted at various stages in her life by using a mirror to capture her moods and to perfect different methods of painting. Sofonisba gave many of her paintings as gifts because her social status would have made it inappropriate for her to sell her works of art. Unfortunately, most of her works have been destroyed or lost over the years but several still survive in Western Europe. Sofonisba Anguissola was fortunate to have been born into nobility during the Renaissance and to have had the advantage of her family"s wealth to learn, practice, and develop the art of portrait painting. Glossary profession: a type of job that requires advanced education pigment: a substance that gives something a particular color

THE ATLANTIC EEL 1 The mysterious qualities of eels have captivated many scientists. In 1886, a French zoologist put a tiny leaf-shaped saltwater fish into a tank in his laboratory. The fish, about four centimeters long, startled the scientist when it turned into a tiny eel—long, rounded, and clear as window glass. Ten years later, another zoologist observed the same metamorphosis in the Mediterranean Sea and concluded that salt water was important to the process. In 1920, Danish biologist Johannes Schmidt tracked eels in the Atlantic Ocean, eventually finding individuals of the smallest size in the Sargasso Sea, an area of the North Atlantic between the West Indies and the Azores that is approximately 1,100 kilometers wide and 3,200 kilometers long and surrounded by four major ocean currents. 2 Atlantic eels have five life phases: larva, glass eel, elver, immature yellow eel, and mature silver eel. Eels are catadromous fish, living most of their lives in fresh water and then migrating to the sea to reproduce. Their migration is an epic life journey, north through the Atlantic, toward the shore, into rivers and lakes, and eventually back to the Sargasso Sea, swimming in the open water by night. Scientists have not yet fully documented adult eels arriving at the Sargasso, or eels mating or laying eggs there, but they have observed the newly hatched larvae clustering in the floating Sargassum weed. The tiny larvae rise to the surface, where they begin their journey by drifting on the Gulf Stream toward either North America or Europe. A year may pass before the young fish swim toward the shore and fresh water. As they approach the coast, the larvae transform into transparent glass eels, five to seven centimeters in length. It is not yet known how the eels find their way inland, but once glass eels leave the ocean and enter fresh water, they swim upstream, eventually turning into thin, black, ten-centimeter elvers. 3 As the elvers grow, they change into adolescent yellow eels, long and slender with brownish-yellow sides and bellies. Yellow eels spend the next several years in flesh water, living in rivers and lakes for up to twenty years. Nearly all of the eels in lakes are female, while those in rivers and estuaries are mainly male. As the adolescents mature into adults, their eyes grow larger, their backs darken, their sides become silver, and their bellies turn silver-white. They start changing into mature silver eels, ready to begin their southward migration to the Sargasso Sea in late autumn. The transformation into sexually mature fish occurs deep in the Atlantic, during the long swim back to their mating site. 4 During their long migration, eels face numerous hurdles. Most of these are the result of human activity, such as the dams, weirs, and other physical impediments that have compromised many river systems. Young black elvers require help getting past dams as they migrate upstream. Because eels are able to breathe through their skin as well as their gills, they can travel over wet surfaces on land, so in some locations biologists have devised wet ramps to assist their climb. During their downstream journey, silver eels can be killed when they swim into the turbines of hydroelectric dams, and a river"s entire eel run can be destroyed in just a few nights. To combat the problem, some energy companies slow the rotation of the blades during the migration so that the eels might pass safely through the turbines. Another hurdle to the eels" passage is the presence of ancient eel weirs, structures of various types built by every human culture that ever inhabited the region. Natural predators also take a toll: eagles, osprey, snapping turtles, and bass all feed on eels. 5 Overfishing and exploitive fisheries have caused eel populations to plummet. Fisheries target eels at three phases of their lives. Before the tiny glass eels can reach shore, thousands are trapped in nets for export to fish farms in Asia. Yellow eels are caught in eel pots for bait, and silver eels are caught in traps for specialty markets around the world. In addition to overfishing, eels will face a more serious threat if climate change alters the speed or direction of the currents around the Sargasso Sea. Even a slight shift in the currents would impact the mating and hatching territories of the Atlantic eel.

How to Take Your Time How a person thinks about time can kill him, according to Dossey, a pioneer in the emerging science of chronobiology, the study of how time interacts with life. One of the most common ills in our society, he says, is "time sickness", a sense of time pressure and hurry that cause anxiety and tension. These {{U}}symptoms{{/U}} can contribute to heart disease and strokes, two of our most frequent causes of death. A. [■] Almost all living things in our world carry their own biological clocks synchronised with the rhythms of nature. B. [■] A crab can {{U}}sense{{/U}} when the tide is about to change. A mouse wakes when night nears. A squirrel knows when to prepare for its long winter nap. C. [■] They adjust to changes in the environment. D. [■] . Light is the most powerful synchroniser in most living things. But in humans there is another powerful synchroniser: other people. Pioneering studies in Germany reported that when people were put together in groups isolated from {{U}}external{{/U}} time cues of light, temperature and humidity, their own complex internal time-keeping rhythms became desynchronised; then they resynchronised in unison. Even body temperatures started to rise and fall together, a sign that subtle biochemical changes in each body were now happening together. These experiments may have discovered one of the mysterious forces that reshape individuals into members of a team, cult or mob. The mind can alter rhythms of time in various ways. People brought back from the brink of death often recall their entire lives flashing before them in an instant. Those who have been in a serious accident often report that, as it occurred, everything happened in slow motion; apparently this is a survival tool built into the brain, an ability to {{U}}accelerate{{/U}} to several times normal perceptual speed, thereby "slowing down" the world and giving the victim "time" to think about how to avoid disaster. Because the time our society keeps has been taught to us since birth, we think of it as something that everyone everywhere must somehow share. But cultures differ in how they perceive time. In North America and the industrialised countries of northern Europe, life is tightly scheduled. To keep someone waiting is frowned upon. But in southern Europe and in the Hispanic countries of Latin America, people are given priority over schedules, and in making appointments, the starting time is more flexible. Each view of time has advantages and disadvantages. But the costs can be great. When our natural inner rhythms are out of synchronisation with clock time, stress results. Under the tyranny of clock time, western industrialised society now finds that heart disease and related illnesses are the leading causes of death. However, such "time illnesses" can be treated and prevented by changing the way we think about time. He applies simple techniques that you can also use to change and master your own time: 1) Unclock your life. Stop wearing a wristwatch. Time becomes much less of a concern when we break the habit of looking at clocks or watches. 2) Set your own inner sense of time. To illustrate that time is relative, Einstein observed that to a person sitting on a hot stove, two minutes could feel like two hours; to the young man with a pretty girl, two hours could seem like two minutes. 3) Tap your body's power to change time. We all possess an inborn ability to relax. Most people can summon it up merely by dismissing disturbing thoughts and by controlling their breathing—for example, by thinking the word "one" with each outgoing breath. Within several minutes this can produce deep calm. 4) Synchronize yourself with nature. Take time to watch a sunset, or a cloud cross the sky. Remember that there is a time far older than what humankind has created with clocks. The cultural pattern we call time is learnt, and if we wish to live in harmony with nature, we must learn to recognize that its time still shapes our world and should not be ignored. We created the mechanical time around which our society operates, and we have the freedom to choose whether we will be its slave or its master.

The Navajo People A total of 300,000 people are currently counted as belonging to the formerly vast Navajo nation. The Navajos, an indigenous North American tribe scatterd over vast areas in Utah, New Mexico, California and Arizona, originally belong to the Athabaskan people which fan out from west-central Canada up to the American Southwest. According to oral Navajo traditions, this ethnic group split away from the larger Apaches clan sometime during the early 1500s before migrating further down towards the Mexican border, where it eventually settled. Navajos were first mentioned as a separate ethnicity around 1620, when the Spanish settlers make reference to the "Apachu de Navajo" when speaking of the tribes inhabiting the Chama river in the vicinity of Santa Fe. This documents quite a massive migration from the Great Plains even though an accurate timeline of this population movement is difficult to establish due to the Navajo"s austere lifestyle. These early people tended to construct rather modest dwellings and wield a small number of simple tools and goods. Thus, they clothed themselves in tanned and greased cowhides that they also used to erect winter hogans to protect themselves against inclement weather. During the bison hunting season, the tent would easily be dissembled and all belongings, including poles, were loaded on travoises pulled by Plains dogs. These traction animals were able to haul along an astonishing load of up to fifty pounds at a rate of two to three miles an hour. These simple features of the Navajo lifestyle have long posed quite a challenge for archaeologists forced to work with a limited amount of data when piecing together the Navajo history. Nevertheless, it has been established that the Navajo forged strong commercial bonds with the Pueblo people of the Rio Grande valley in the midsts of the 16th century, with whom they traded bison meat, hides and material for stone tools in exchange for cotton and maize. Later in the 17th century, the Navajos occupied the abandoned Pueblo territories as relentless pressure from Spanish colonists and the intermittent warfare with neighboring tribes intensified. The contact with the Pueblos and their other allies, the Utah and Comanche people, as well as the inevitable cultural clash with the European invaders brought about a change in the Navajo lifestyle. Primarily nomadic hunting gatherers, they later resorted to a more sedentary way of living and took up pottery, weaving and farming, while nevertheless preserving their own traditional values and system of beliefs. The Navajos penchant for simplicity is, for example, most evident in their woven blankets, which display symmetrical geometrical patterns in red yarn. The typical Germantown rugs are undoubtebly the finest pieces of textile art in Native American history. The same clean and unadorned lines are evident in the Navajo silversmithing technique, which favors the insertion of turquoise gem stones. Navajo spiritual and religious practices share that nation"s purity of thought. They are designed chiefly to restore health, balance and harmony to the individual. It is believed that sickness is the result of contamination with impure elements as a result of the violation of certain taboos. These may include contact with lightening-struck elements, exposure to taboo animals such as snakes, or contact with the dead. Navajo warriors thus undergo a Blessing Way Ceremony before being sent off to war, as well as an Enemy Way Ceremony which allows them to cope with post-traumatic stress disorders. Such sacred ceremonies last an average of four days and require the presence of a large number of relatives and friends to ensure their success. Furthermore, they are to be performed according to a rigid set of rules by a trained medicine man, a Hatili, should they yield the desired effect. 1 [■] The preferred location of any religious ceremony is the hogan, which is a sacred place as it was built according to the instructions of the First Coyote, the mythological ancestor of the Navajo. 2 [■] The ceremonies are accompanied by numerous blessings and chants that reveal the rich heritage and profound spirituality of this indigenous tribe. 3 [■] They pay tribute to a matriarchal society, in which female dwellers are the only members allowed to own livestock or land. 4 [■] By custom, a newly married Navajo male will move into his bride"s hogan, and any accumulated goods will be inherited along the matrimonial line. This sharp contrast to the currently accepted patriarchal system must be the reason for the Navajo"s inherent non-aggressive and pacifist behavior. Glossary hogan: a Navajo Indian dwelling constructed of earth and branches and covered with mud or sod travois: a transport device, formally used by the Plains Indians, consisting of two poles joined by a frame and drawn by an animal

Mannerism In the wake of the High Renaissance, European art seemed to have no frontiers left to explore. Mannerism, the style characteristic of the Late Renaissance, filled the gap between the Renaissance and Baroque periods. The style broke from the balanced beauty of the Renaissance and reflected the turmoil and confusion of Europe during the 16th century. At that time the Reformation threatened the authority of the Catholic Church, and the Church's rigorous response cast a suspicious eye toward anything new. The uniqueness of Mannerist art may be seen as an attempt by the artists of Rome, Florence, and Mantua to free themselves of not only political and religious oppression but also the oppression of the Renaissance masters' perfection. While the artists of the High Renaissance pursued grace, beauty, and harmony, Mannerist artists did not seem to be interested in their predecessors' sensibilities. Using Renaissance techniques and materials, the mannerists rendered contorted and exaggerated figures often in improbable poses. They used strange colors in deliberately unrealistic perspective with themes that included both Christianity and bizarre mythological symbolism. While neither explicitly heretical nor abstract by modern standards, Mannerist art suggested an odd spirit and became popular not only in Italy but in many parts of Europe. Rosso Fiorentino typifies Mannerist art in his subtly disturbing style. For example, saints who are gracefully depicted in High Renaissance art often seem tired in Rosso's work. ■(A) His choices in composition, form, and color also seem unsettling compared to typical Renaissance work. In Rosso's masterpiece, The Descent from the Cross, the wind blows across the clothing of frantic figures as they bring down the body of Christ. ■(B) In the foreground, however, there is no evidence of wind at all on the mourners' calm, stiff clothing. ■(C) Notably, all of these figures avert their gaze from the viewer except one woman. ■(D) Rosso's contemporary, Jacopo da Pontormo, executed the same theme in a somewhat less dramatic fashion. The Deposition from the Cross, which is considered one of his best works, features oddly posed figures clothed in vividly contrasting blues and reds. Pontormo depicts impossible perspective, spatial depth and lighting in the painting. The lighting from the right does not seem especially unusual until one considers a cloud in the sky, which is lit from the left. Such peculiar visual devices of modeling, color, perspective, and lighting characterize Pontormo's work as well as Mannerist art in general. Perhaps the best-known Mannerist, El Greco departed the most from the Renaissance period's clarity, harmony, and beauty. His brushwork was not as sharp as that of the High Renaissance masters, evoking more primitive as well as more modern styles. El Greco is known for his fantastical compositions, including distorted figures and colors that seemed to leap off the painting surface. His work was so strange that people wondered if he was visually impaired or mentally disturbed. El Greco's work was sometimes moving, but it was also troubling with the intense religious themes and mysterious symbolism. Mannerist art was not just a reflection of the 16th-century Europe's troubles; it was considered a response to the seemingly unsurpassable idealism of the High Renaissance. The Mannerists subtly sought to stimulate the mind, not to inspire religious feelings and actions as most Renaissance art did. The style produced exciting manipulation of form, color, light, perspective, and theme that was indeed appreciated by contemporary intellectuals. Although it was and still is criticized by some as a corruption of Renaissance classicism, Mannerism in fact inspired the emotion of the Baroque period that followed. Moreover, the Mannerists' deliberate movement away from observed reality was the first step toward the abstraction of later styles such as Surrealism, Fauvism, and Cubism.

Is Earth Getting Warmer? The National Academy of Sciences claimed recently that people should caution rather than panic about the greenhouse effect. It is said that the greenhouse effect will result in global warming, which will elevate the earth's temperature by 3～9 degrees Fahrenheit. The greenhouse effect results when carbon dioxide (CO2) and certain other gases in the atmosphere allow the sun's ultraviolet rays to penetrate and warm the earth, but then absorb the infrared energy the earth radiates back into space—much as glass in a greenhouse does—forming a kind of "thermal blanket" around the planet. The greenhouse effect will mean much more than hotter summers and milder winters. It may alter rainfall, affect crop yields and eventually—as glaciers begin to melt—raise the level of the seas. It had long been reported that the earth's temperature would rise, melting the icecaps, raising the seas, flooding the land. Half of Long Island would be under water. Midwest would become a desert. However, the findings of latest studies have indicated that the earth might not undergo warmer temperatures and rather it may experience colder weather. Due to the variable behavior of the sun, the earth may be confronted with another Ice Age. In the past, concern about a man-made warming of the earth has concentrated on the Arctic because the Antarctic is much colder and has a much thicker ice sheet. But the weather experts are now paying more attention to West Antarctic, which may be affected by only a few degrees of warming: in other words, by a warming on the scale that will possibly take place in the next fifty years from the burning of fuels.A. [■] Satellite pictures show that large areas of Antarctic ice are already disappearing.B. [■] The evidence available suggests that a warming has taken place. This fits the theory that carbon dioxide warms the earth,C. [■] Scientists conclude, therefore, that up to now natural influences on the weather have exceeded those caused by man. The question is: Which natural cause has most effect on the weather?.D.[■] One possibility is the variable behavior of the sun. Astronomers at one research station have studied the hot spots and "cold" spots (that is, the relatively less hot spots) on the sun. As the sun rotates, every 27.5 days, it presents hotter or "colder" faces to the earth, and different aspects to different parts of the earth. This seems to have a considerable effect on the distribution of the earth's atmospheric pressure, and consequently on wind circulation. The sun is also variable over a long term: its heat output goes up and down in cycles, the latest trend being downward. Scientists are now finding mutual relations between models of solar-weather interactions and the actual climate over many thousands of years, including the last Ice Age. The problem is that the models are predicting that the world should be entering a new Ice Age and it is not, One way of solving this theoretical difficulty is to assume a delay of thousands of years while the solar effects overcome the inertia of the earth's climate. If this is right, the warming effect of carbon dioxide might thus be serving as a useful counterbalance to the sun's diminishing heat. In addition to the variable behavior of the sun, new research has also demonstrated that global warming will probably lead in the end to a period of much colder weather, at least in Europe. Scientists base their theory on what happened the last time the world warmed up, 8300 years ago. They have discovered that when the ice melted from the northern polar ice cap it became trapped in an enormous lake in northern Canada. As more ice melted this lake suddenly burst open, releasing millions of tons of freezing fresh water into the North Atlantic. This flood of water was so large that it prevented the normal flow of water in the Atlantic, which takes warm water from the tropics north to Europe and thus temperatures in Europe dropped by between three and eight degrees Celsius over the next two hundred years. Scientists believe that a similar process could occur in the next century if the Greenland Ice Sheet starts to melt.

PhysicalandChemicalPropertiesandChangesSugar,water,andaluminumaredifferentsubstances.Eachsubstancehasspecificpropertiesthatdonotdependonthequantityofthesubstance.Propertiesthatcanbeusedtoidentifyorcharacterizeasubstance--anddistinguishthatsubstancefromothersubstances--arecalledcharacteristicproperties.Theyaresubdividedintotwocategories:physicalpropertiesandchemicalproperties.Thecharacteristicphysicalpropertiesofasubstancearethosethatidentifythesubstancewithoutcausingachangeinthecompositionofthesubstance.Theydonotdependonthequantityofsubstance.Color,odor,density,meltingpoint,boilingpoint,hardness,metalliclusterorshininess,ductility,malleability,andviscosity,areallcharacteristicphysicalproperties.Forexample,aluminumisametalthatisbothductileandmalleable.Anotherexampleofaphysicalpropertyiswater.Whetherasmallpanofwaterisraisedtoitsboilingpointoraverylargekettleofwaterisraisedtoitsboilingpoint,thetemperatureatwhichthewaterboilsisthesamevalue,100degreesCor212degreesF.Similarly,thefreezingpointofwateris0degreesCor32degreesF.Thesevaluesareindependentofquantity.Characteristicpropertiesthatrelatetochangesinthecompositionofasubstanceortohowitreactswithothersubstancesarecalledchemicalproperties.Thefollowingquestionspertaintothechemicalpropertiesofasubstance.1.Doesitburninair?2.Doesitdecompose(breakupintosmallersubstances)whenheated?3.Whathappenswhenitisplacedinanacid?4.Whatotherchemicalswillitreactwith,andwhatsubstancesareobtainedfromthereaction?Characteristicphysicalandchemicalpropertiesalsocalledintensivepropertiesareusedtoidentifyasubstance.Inadditiontothecharacteristicphysicalpropertiesalreadymentioned,someintensivephysicalpropertiesincludethetendencytodissolveinwater,electricalconductivity,anddensity,whichistheratioofmasstovolume.Additionalintensivechemicalpropertiesincludethetendencyofasub-stancetoreactwithanothersubstance,totarnish,tocorrode,toexplode,ortoactasapoisonorcarcinogen(cancer-causingagent).Extensivepropertiesofsubstancesarethosethatdependonthequantityofthesample,includingmeasurementsofmass,volume,andlength.Whereasintensivepropertieshelpidentifyorcharacterizeaparticularkindofmatter,extensivepropertiesrelatetotheamountpresent.Ifalumpofcandlewaxiscutorbrokenintosmallerpieces,orifitismelted(achangeofstate),thesampleremainingisstillcandlewax.Whencooled,themoltenwaxreturnstoasolid.Intheseexamples,onlyaphysicalchangehastakenplace;thatis,thecompositionofthesubstancewasnotaffected.Whenacandleisburned,therearebothphysicalandchemicalchanges.Afterthecandleislighted,thesolidwaxneartheburningwickmelts.Thisisaphysicalchange;thecompositionofthewaxdoesnotchangeasitgoesfromsolidtoliquid.Someofthewaxisdrawnintotheburningwickwhereachemicalchangeoccurs.Here,waxinthecandleflamereactschemicallywithoxygenintheairtoformcarbondioxidegasandwatervapor.Inanychemicalchange,oneormoresubstancesareusedupwhileoneormorenewsubstancesareformed.Thenewsubstancesproducedhavetheirownuniquephysicalandchemicalproperties.Theapparentdisappearanceofsomething,likethecandlewax,however,isnotnecessarilyasignthatweareobservingachemicalchange.Forexample,whenwaterevaporatesfromaglassanddisappears,ithaschangedfromaliquidtoagas(calledwatervapor),butinbothformsitiswater.Thisisaphasechange(liquidtogas),whichisaphysicalchange.Whenattemptingtodeterminewhetherachangeisphysicalorchemical,oneshouldaskthecriticalquestion:Hasthefundamentalcompositionofthesubstancechanged?Inachemicalchange(areaction),ithas,butinaphysicalchange,ithasnot.Glossary:ductility:canbedrawnintowiremalleability:canbeshapedviscosity:thick,resistanttoflow

CANADIAN ENGLISH 1 Canadian English is a regional variety of North American English that spans almost the entire continent. Canadian English became a separate variety of North American English after the American Revolution, when thousands of Loyalists, people who had supported the British, left the United States and fled north to Canada. Many Loyalists settled in southern Ontario in the 1780s, and their speech became the basis for what is called General Canadian, a definition based on the {{U}}norms{{/U}} of urban middle-class speech. 2 Modern Canadian English is usually defined by the ways in which it resembles and differs from American or British English. Canadian English has {{U}}a great deal in common with{{/U}} the English spoken in the United States, yet many Americans identify a Canadian accent as British. Many American visitors to Canada think the Canadian vocabulary sounds British--for example, they notice the British "tap" and "braces" instead of the American "faucet" and "suspenders." On the other hand, many British people identify a Canadian accent as American, and British visitors think the Canadians have become Americanized, saying "gas" and "truck" for "petrol" and "lorry." 3 People who live outside North America often find it difficult to hear the differences between Canadian and American English. There are many similarities between the two varieties, yet they are far from identical. Canadian English is instantly recognizable to other Canadians, and one Canadian in a crowded room will easily {{U}}spot{{/U}} the other Canadian among the North Americans. 4 There is no distinctive Canadian grammar. The differences are mainly in pronunciation, vocabulary, and idioms. {{U}}Canadian pronunciation reflects the experience of a people struggling for national identity against two strong influences{{/U}}. About 75 percent of Canadians use the British "zed" rather than the American "zee" for the name of the last letter of the alphabet. On the other hand, 75 percent of Canadians use the American pronunciation of "schedule," "tomato," and "missile." The most obvious and distinctive feature of Canadian speech is probably its vowel sound, the diphthong "ou." In Canada, "out" is pronounced like "oat" in nearby U.S. accents. There are other identifying features of Canadian vowels; for example, "cot" is pronounced the same as "caught" and "collar" the same as "caller." 5 An important characteristic of the vocabulary of Canadian English is the use of many words and phrases originating in Canada itself, such as "kerosene" and "chesterfield" ("sofa"). Several words are borrowed from North American Indian languages, for example, "kayak," "caribou," "parka," and "skookum" ("strong"). The name of the country itself has an Indian origin; the Iroquois word "kanata" originally meant "village." A number of terms for ice hockey--"face-off, blue-line," and "puck"--have become part of World Standard English. 6 Some features of Canadian English seem to be unique and are often deliberately identified with Canadian speakers in such contexts as dramatic and literary characterizations. Among the original Canadian idioms, perhaps the most famous is the almost universal use of"eh?" as a tag question, as in "That's a good movie, eh? Eh" is also used as a filler during a narrative, as in "I'm walking home from work, eh, and I'm thinking about dinner. I finally get home, eh, and the refrigerator is empty." 7 The traditional view holds that there are no dialects in Canadian English and that Canadians cannot tell where other Canadians are from just by listening to them. The linguists of today disagree with this view. While there is a greater degree of {{U}}homogeneity{{/U}} in Canadian English compared with American English, several dialect areas do exist across Canada. Linguists have identified distinct dialects for the Maritime Provinces, Newfoundland, the Ottawa Valley, southern Ontario, the Prairie Provinces, the Arctic North, and the West.

Whatisthelecturemainlyabout?A.ThedefinitionofswinefluinMexico.B.Thebasicinformationaboutswineflu.C.Theinfectionofswineflutohumans.D.Thepreventionofswinefluworldwid

HUMAN MIGRATION 1 The long-term movement of individuals, families, or larger groups to a new location outside their community of origin is known as migration. Human migration occurs on various geographic scales: from one continent or country to another, between regions within a single country, and from one city neighborhood to another. Several factors stimulate migration, including economic conditions, political conflict, war, cultural circumstances, and environmental factors. 2 People migrate from source to destination in well-defined streams. Many migration streams actually consist of a series of stages, a phenomenon known as step migration. For example, a peasant family from the countryside is likely to move first to a village, then to a nearby town, later to a city, and finally to a metropolis--the capital or the largest city in the region. The intensity of a migration stream depends on such factors as the physical distance and the degree of difference between the source and the destination. It also depends on the flow of information from the destination back to the source. People are likely to have more complete and accurate information about nearby places than about places that are farther away. 3 The decision to move is the result of various stimuli, which social scientists classify as "push" and "pull" factors. Push factors are the conditions that {{U}}impel{{/U}} people to leave their home communities. The lack of jobs or educational opportunities, political fear, ethnic or religious discrimination, and natural disasters are all examples of push factors. Pull factors are the circumstances that attract people to certain destinations, such as better living standards, the chance of getting a job, and family connections. {{U}}The circumstances that induce people to move from one part of the world to another--economic, political, and environmental conditions--usually involve a combination of push and pull factors.{{/U}} Because people are usually more familiar with their home community than with a desired destination, they are likely to understand push factors more accurately than pull factors. Pull factors tend to be more {{U}}vague{{/U}}, and people often have overly optimistic expectations of their destination. 4 Economic conditions are a leading factor in human migration. Throughout history, poverty has driven millions of people from their homelands. Industrialization has attracted populations to urban areas in search of economic opportunity. The flow from farms or villages to the expanding metropolitan and industrial centers has occurred both within and between countries. During the twentieth century, Russians moved into the new industrial centers in Siberia, Chinese migrated to Manchuria and Southeast Asia, and Africans moved from tribal areas into the mining regions of South Africa and Congo. Today, perceived opportunities in destinations such as Western Europe and North America encourage numerous migrants to search for a better life. Some workers migrate only seasonally or temporarily. Especially in newly industrializing areas, workers tend to retain their village roots and return home after a period of earning in a factory or mine. However, most migrants relocate permanently, and the growing urban populations worldwide are composed of people who have {{U}}cut themselves off from their roots.{{/U}} 5 The twentieth century saw an increase in migratory flows caused by the push factors of political oppression, revolution, and war. Refugees fled from Russia after the 1917 revolution, from Germany and Italy during the Nazi and Fascist regimes, and from Eastern Europe after the Second World War. Millions of people were uprooted as a result of political, cultural, and religious conflict. The partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 led to the uprooting and resettlement of around 14 million Muslims and Hindus--the largest single movement of people in a short period. The armed conflict in the former Yugoslavia during the 1990s drove as many as three million people from their homes. In the same decade, a civil war in Rwanda forced more than two million Rwandans from their homeland. 6 Reasons for migration include environmental conditions, often in combination with economic and political problems. A major historical example is the Irish famine of the 1840s, when prolonged rains and blight destroyed the potato crop. The resulting famine, along with the oppressive political system, caused hundreds of thousands of peasants to migrate from Ireland to North America. In recent decades, a series of droughts resulting from successive rainless seasons in sub-Saharan Africa, combined with such factors as ethnic strife and civil war, have caused large-scale migrations and a growing refugee crisis in the region.

CountryMusicAcommercialoffshootofthefolkmusicoftheruralSouth,countrymusicisanAmericanartformthatgainedworldwideappealafterWorldWarⅡ.Originallyknownashillbillyormountainmusic,countrymusicgrewfromthefolkmusicthatwasbroughttoNorthAmericabyAnglo-Celticsettlersinthe1700sand1800s.Themusicchangedasitcameincontactwithethnicmusic--Acadian(Cajun)inLouisiana,LatinintheSouthwest,AfricanthroughoutmuchoftheSouth--andsuchpopularmusicasthatfoundinvaudeville,minstrelshows,andHawaiiantentshows.ItwasalsocalledcountryandWesternmusicbecauseofitspopularitywithcowboys.Traditionallycountrymusicianshavebeenmostproficientonstringedinstruments.Theviolin,orfiddle,wasthemostpopularinstrumentonthefrontierbecauseofitseasyportability.Tothisdayfiddlecontestsremainafeatureofthecountrymusicscene.ThebanjowasadaptedfromtheAfricanAmericanculture,andthefive-siringmodelisnowuniversallypopularamongperformersofthestyleknownasbluegrass.Theguitarhaslongbeenastapleofcountrymusicbandsandsingers.StringbassandHawaiianguitarhavebeenusedsincethe1920s,andtheirmoderndescendantsaretheelectricbassandthepedalsteelguitar.Drums,pianos,andelectrifiedinstruments,usedasearlyasthe1930sbyWesternswingbands,areheardoncountryrecordingsfromthe1950s.In1922radiostationsWBAPinFortWorth,Tex.,andWSBinAtlanta,Ga.,broadcastshowscalledbarndances,modeledaftertheinformalsocialdancingofthefrontier.Chicago'sWLSstartedwhatbecametheNationalBarnDancein1924,andWSMinNashville,Tenn.,beganitsBarnDanceinNovember1925,justonemonthaftergoingontheair.Recordcompaniesalsodiscoveredthecommercialpossibilitiesofthismusic.FiddlerEck(A.C.)RobertsontraveledtoNewYorkCityandin1922madethefirsthillbillyrecords,"ArkansasTraveler"and"SallieGoodin".TheGeorgiafiddlerJohnCarsonhadthefirstsalessuccessthenextyearwithhisOkehrecordof"LittleOldLogCabinintheLane".ATexasnativewhoactuallyhadvoicetrainingandlightoperaexperience,VernonDalhart(hisrealnamewasMarionSlaughter)soldmillionsofrecordsinthe1920sfordozensofdifferentcompanies.Hisfirstbigsellerswere"ThePrisoner'sSong"and"TheWreckoftheOld97"forVictorin1924.In1927JimmieRodgers,originallyayodeler,madehisfirstrecordings.BecauseRodgers,Victorrecordsinspirednumerousmentobecomecountryentertainers,hebecameknownastheFatherofCountryMusic.Hollywood'ssingingcowboyswonforcountrymusicnationalandinternationalaudiencesduringthelater1930s.EventhoughrecordsalesforcountryandothertypesofmusicslippedduringtheGreatDepression,radiocontinuedtobroadcastalargearrayoflivecountrymusictalent,usuallyintheearlymorning,noon,orlatenighthours.Newbarndanceswereheardontheairwaves,andtwoofthelocalshowsgainednetworkradioaudiencesduringthe1930s.WorldWarⅡacceleratedcountrymusic'sgrowthawayfromanexclusivelySouthernandruralphenomenon.Southernservicementookthemusicwiththemtofar-flungpartsofthenationandtheworld,whileciviliandefenseworkersfromtheSouthbroughttheirloveofthemusicintothevariouscentersofwarproduction.Thepostwaryearsbroughtanewfoundnationalprosperity,whichboostedcountrymusictogreatercommercialheights.Singersandbusinessexecutivescloselytiedtothemusicsoughtandwonanewrespectabilityfromtradepapersandnationalmedia.Theoldtermshillbillyandmountainwerereplacedbycountry,andevenforatimebycountryandWestern,inrecognitionofthenewpopularityofthecowboysingersontelevision.Enduringatemporaryeclipseofmarketshareandpopularitybecauseoftheimpactofrockandrollinthelate1950s,countrymusiccamebackstrongduringthe1960sand1970swithnewperformersandstyles.Network,syndicated,andlocaltelevisionprogrammingboostedthefortunesofcountrymusicgenerallyandsuchartistsasPorterWagoner,JimmyDean,LorettaLynn,andDollyPattoninparticular.Thenumberofradiostationsprogrammingcountrymusicrecordsfulltimerosefromalowpointoffewerthan60in1961tomorethan2,500inthe1980s.Respectabilityandnationalacceptancearestillby-wordswithcountrymusicindustryleaders.Beyonddoubtcountrymusichasbroadeneditsaudiencebyadaptingstylisticelementsbothvocalandinstrumental--ofrockandotherpopularmusic.Thecrossoverphenomenoncametotheforeinthelate1970sandearly1980s,whensuchpop-countrystarsasKennyRogers,CrystalGayle,BarbaraMandrell,Alabama,LarryGatlin,andtheOakRidgeBoysattainedsuccesswithyounger,urban,pop-musicfans.Infact,countrymusic'sneweststarperformerstheoneswhodominatetheindustryinsalesofrecordingsandtheoneswhowintheindustryawards--arelargelytraditionalin"their"sound,style,andthemes.Oldertraditionalartistsremainpopular,whilenight-clubsandoutdoorfestivalsringwiththesoundsofbluegrass.