{{B}}Set3EcologyLecture{{/B}}{{B}}Narrator{{/B}}Listentoaconversationbetweenastudentandacollegehousingofficer.

Whatisthetalkmainlyabout?A.ThemainfunctionoftheAmericanhousingsystem.B.TheseriousproblemsoftheAmericanhousingsystem.C.ThesocialandeconomicchangesoftheAmericanhousing.D.ThedevelopingtendenciesoftheAmericanhousingsystem.

AspectsoftheSunSincethebeginningoftime,humanbeingshavebeenfascinatedbythedramasunfoldinginthefirmamentabove--theshiftingarchofthesun,thechangingfacesofthemoon,theregularpatternsofstarsturningastheseasonschange.ThestudyofthesesubtlepatternsandrelationshipsinthecosmosevolvedintoAstronomy(or"lawofthestars"),oneoftheoldestofthesciences.Whiledifferentcultures,religions,andscientifictheoriesalloffercontrastingexplanationsforcosmicphenomena,thereisonepointonwhichtheyallagree:therewouldbenolifeonEarthifnotforthesun.Modernsciencehasnowproventhatthesun,whosereliablepathacrosstheskygivesusthecontoursofourdaysandthedurationofournights,isthefocalpointofoursolarsystem.Thesunis,infact,astarthatisnearly110timesthesizeofEarthandcomprisesmorethan99%ofthesolarsystem'smass,whichcreatesenoughgravitationalpulltoextendtotheouterreachesofoursolarsystemandkeepallmannerofmatter(planets,asteroids,meteorsandevendust)inorbit.Likeotherstars,thesunismadeupofvariousgases,themostprevalentbeinghydrogenataround74%,andheliumataround25%.Becausethesun'sgravitationalforceinwardisequaltothatofitsthermalpressureoutward,itisinastateofhydrostaticequilibrium,whichcausesthesuntocompressintoasphere.Whilethesunisanearperfectsphereandappearstothenakedeyeasapreciseandsharplydefinedyellowcircleagainstthesky(henceitsancientastronomicalsymbolofacirclewithapointatitscenter),itdoesnotactuallyhaveadefiniteedgeorboundary.Instead,thedensityofitsgasesdecreasesexponentiallywithdistancefromthecore.Likemoststars,thesungeneratesheatandenergyvianuclearfusion,whichtakesplaceinthecoreatthecenterofthesun.Thisenergymusttravelthroughanumberofdifferentlayersbeforeitreachesthephotosphere,thefirstlayerofthesun'satmosphere,whereitescapesintospaceassunlight.Itisthephotospherethatweseewhenwelookatthesun.Thelayerisabout100kmthick,whichisrelativelythincomparedtoothersolarlayers,andismuchcoolerthanthesun'soutermostatmosphericlayercalledthecorona.Oneofthesun'sgreatestmysteriesistheincredibleheatofthecorona.Usuallyheatdecreaseswithdistancefromthecore;thisistrueforthesununtilyoureachthecorona,whichbecomessuddenlyhotterbyafactorofnearly200timesthatofthephotosphere.Theexactprocessofheatingandmaintainingthecoronaisstilloneoftheunsolvedsolarmysteriesthatcontinuetofascinateandperplexscientiststoday.Anothersolarmysteryisthecuriousnatureofsolarflares.Equivalenttomillionsof100-megatonhydrogenbombsdetonatedsimultaneously,solarflaresarethemostintenseandenergeticexplosionsthatoccurinoursolarsystem.■(A)Theseexplosionsoccuronthesun'sphotosphereandaredifficulttoviewthroughthelayer'sbrightemissions,evenwithspecializedequipment.Solarflaresaredirectlylinkedtoanothermoreeasilyobservablesolarphenomenon--sunspots.Withtheinventionofthetelescopein1608,astronomerswerefinallyabletolookintothefaceofthesunandseethatitisnotaperfectandunchangingyellowdiscastheyhadexpected,butthatitisoftenmarredbydiscernibleblemishesordarkspots.■(B)Thesedarkareasarethecoolestregionsonthesun'sphotosphereandarecharacterizedbyintensemagneticactivity.Thefrequencyofsunspotoccurrencesfollowsaneleven-yearsolarorsunspotcycle.■(C)Attheminimumendofthecycle,thereisverylittlesunspotactivityandatthemaximumend,theremightbehundredsofvisiblesunspots.Anincreasednumberofsunspotsindicatesacorrelatedincreaseinsolarflareactivity.■(D)Thisperiodofactivitycanposeaseriousdangertosatellitesandastronauts.Onesolarflarecanemitenoughmagneticenergytocauseseriousdamagetoasatellite,orchangethesatellite'sorbit.ItcanalsoshaketheEarth'smagneticfieldandcausedangeroussurgesinpowerlines,resultinginblackoutsoverlargeareas.Becauseofthesedangersandourincreasingrelianceonsatellites,ithasbecomeevenmoreimportantforscientiststounderstandthenatureofsolarweatherandtodeterminemoreaccuratemethodsofpredictingsolaractivity.

"Piaget"sCognitiveDevelopmentTheory"ThefamousSwisspsychologistJeanPiaget(1896-1980)proposedanimportanttheoryofcognitivedevelopment.Piaget"stheorystatesthatchildrenactivelyconstructtheirunderstandingoftheworldandgothroughfourstagesofcognitivedevelopment.Twoprocessesunderliethiscognitiveconstructionoftheworld:organizationandadaptation.Tomakesenseofourworld,weorganizeourexperiences.Forexample,weseparateimportantideasfromlessimportantideas.Weconnectoneideatoanother.Butnotonlydoweorganizeourobservationsandexperiences,wealsoadaptourthinkingtoincludenewideasbecauseadditionalinformationfurthersunderstanding.Piaget(1954)believedthatweadaptintwoways:assimilationandaccommodation.→Assimilationoccurswhenindividualisincorporatenewinformationintotheirexistingknowledge.Accommodationoccurswhenindividualisadjusttonewinformation.Consideracircumstanceinwhicha9-year-oldgirlisgivenahammerandnailstohangapictureonthewall.Shehasneverusedahammer,butfromobservationandvicariousexperiencesherealizesthatahammerisanobjecttobeheld,thatitisswungbythehandletohitthenail,andthatitisusuallyswunganumberoftimes.Recognizingeachofthesethings,shefitsherbehaviorintotheinformationshealreadyhas(assimilation).However,thehammerisheavy,sosheholdsitnearthetop.Sheswingstoohardandthenailbends,sosheadjuststhepressureofherstrikes.Theseadjustmentsrevealherabilitytoalterslightlyherconceptionoftheworld(accommodation).Piagetthoughtthatassimilationandaccommodationoperateevenintheveryyounginfant"slife.Newbornsreflexivelysuckeverythingthattouchestheirlips(assimilation),but,afterseveralmonthsofexperience,theyconstructtheirunderstandingoftheworlddifferently.Someobjects,suchasfingersandthemother"sbreast,canbesucked,butotherssuchasfuzzyblankets,shouldnotbesucked(accommodation).Piagetalsobelievedthatwegothroughfourstagesinunderstandingtheworld.Eachofthestagesisage-relatedandconsistsofdistinctwaysofthinking.Remember,itisthedifferentwayofunderstandingtheworldthatmakesonestagemoreadvancedthananother;knowingmoreinformationdoesnotmakethechild"sthinkingmoreadvanced,inthePiagetianview.ThisiswhatPiagetmeantwhenhesaidthechild"scognitionisqualitativelydifferentinonestagecomparedtoanother(Vidal,2000).WhatarePiaget"sfourstagesofcognitivedevelopmentlike?Thesensorimotorstage,whichlastsfrombirthtoabout2yearsofage,isthefirstPiagetianstage.Inthisstage,infantsconstructanunderstandingoftheworldbycoordinatingsensoryexperiences(suchasseeingandhearing)withphysical,motoricactions-hencethetermsensorimotor.Attheendofthestage,2-year-oldshavesophisticatedsensorimotorpatternsandarebeginningtooperatewithprimitivesymbols.→Thepreoperationalstage,whichlastsfromapproximately2to7yearsofage,isthesecondPiagetianstage.Inthisstage,childrenbegintorepresenttheworldwithwords,images,anddrawings.Symbolicthoughtgoesbeyondsimpleconnectionsofsensoryinformationandphysicalaction.However,althoughpreschoolchildrencansymbolicallyrepresenttheworld,accordingtoPiaget,theystilllacktheabilitytoperformoperations,thePiagetiantermforinternalizedmental,actionsthatallowchildrentodomentallywhattheypreviouslydidphysically.→Theconcreteoperationalstage,whichlastsfromapproximately7to11yearsofage,isthethirdPiagetianstage.Inthisstage,childrencanperformoperations,andlogicalreasoningreplacesintuitivethoughtaslongasreasoningcanbeappliedtospecificorconcreteexamples.Forinstance,concreteoperationalthinkerscannotimaginethestepsnecessarytocompleteanalgebraicequation,whichistooabstractforthinkingatthisstageofdevelopment.→Theformaloperationalstage,whichappearsbetweentheagesof11and15,isthefourthandfinalPiagetianstage.Inthisstage,individualsmovebeyondconcreteexperiencesandthinkinabstractandmorelogicalterms.Aspartofthinkingmoreabstractly,adolescentsdevelopimagesofidealcircumstances.Theymightthinkaboutwhatanidealparentislikeandcomparetheirparentstothisidealstandard.Theybegintoentertainpossibilitiesforthefutureandarefascinatedwithwhattheycanbe.Insolvingproblems,formaloperationalthinkersaremoresystematic,developinghypothesesaboutwhysomethingishappeningthewayitis,thentestingthesehypothesesinadeductivemanner.

{{B}}ReadingSectionDirections{{/B}}Inthissectionyouwillreadfivepassagesandanswerreadingcomprehensionquestionsabouteachpassage.Mostquestionsareworthonepoint,butthelastquestionineachsetisworthmorethanonepoint.Thedirectionsindicatehowmanypointsyoumayreceive.Youwillhave60minutestoreadallofthepassagesandanswerthequestions.Somepassagesincludeawordorphrasethatisunderlinedinblue.Clickonthewordorphrasetoseeadefinitionoranexplanation.Whenyouwanttomoveontothenextquestion,clickon{{B}}Next{{/B}}.Youcanskipquestionsandgobacktothemlateraslongasthereistimeremaining.Ifyouwanttoreturntopreviousquestions,clickon{{B}}Back{{/B}}.Youcanclickon{{B}}Review{{/B}}atanytimeandthereviewscreenwillshowyouwhichquestionyouhaveansweredandwhichyouhavenot.Fromthisreviewscreen,youmaygodirectlytoanyquestionyouhavealreadyseeninthereadingsection.Whenyouarereadytocontinue,clickonthe{{B}}Continue{{/B}}icon.{{B}}Set1{{/B}}{{B}}New-AgeTransport{{/B}}ItlooksasifitcamestraightfromthesetofStarWars.Ithasfour-wheeldriveandrisesaboverockysurfaces.Itlowersandraisesitsnosewhengoingupanddownhills.Andwhenitcomestoariver,itturnsamphibious:twohydrojetspoweritalongbyblastingwaterunderitsbody.Thereisroomfortwopassengersandadriver,whositinsideaglassbubbleoperatingelectronic,aircraft-typecontrols.Avehiclesodaringonlandandwaterneedswindscreenwipers—butitdoesn'thaveany.Watermoleculesaredisintegratedonthescreen'ssurfacebyultrasonicsensors.ThisunusualvehicleistheRacoon.ItisaninventionnotofHollywoodbutofRenault,aratherconservativeFrenchstate-ownedcarmaker,betterknownforitsfamilyhatchbacks.RenaultbuilttheRacoontoexplorenewfreedomsfordesignersandengineerscreatedbyadvancesinmaterialsandmanufacturingprocesses.Renaultisthinkingaboutstartlinglydifferentcars;otherproducershaveradicalnewideasfortrains,boatsandaeroplanes.Thefirstofthenewfreedomsisindesign.Powerfulcomputer-aideddesign(CAD)systemscanreplacewithaclickofacomputermousehoursoflaboriousworkdoneonthousandsofdrawingboards.Sonewproducts,nomatterhowcomplicated,canbedevelopedmuchfaster.Forthefirsttime,Boeingwillnothavetobuildagiantreplicaofitsnewairliner,the777,tomakesureallthebitsfittogether.ItsCADsystemwilltakecareofthat.ButRenaultistakingCADfurther.ItclaimstheRacoonistheworld'sfirstvehicletobedesignedwithinthedigitisedworldofvirtualreality.Complexprogramswereusedtosimulatethevehicleandtheterrainthatitwasexpectedtocross.ThisallowedateamledbyPatrickLeQuement,Renault'sindustrial-designdirector,to"drive"itlongbeforeaprototypeexisted.Renaultisnotaloneinthinkingthatvirtualrealitywilltransformautomotivedesign.InDetroit,Fordisalsoinvestigatingitspotential.JackTelnac,thefirm'sheadofdesign,wouldlikedesignersindifferentpartsoftheworldtoworkmorecloselytogether,linkedbycomputers.Theywoulddomorethanstylecars.Virtualrealitywillallowengineerstopeerinsidetheworkingpartofavehicle.Designerswillwatchbearingsmove,oilflow,gearsmeshandhydraulicspump.Asthesetechniquescatchon,evenstrangervehiclesarelikelytocomealong.Transformingthesecreationsfromvirtualrealitytoactualrealitywillalsobecomeeasier,especiallywithadvancesinmaterials.Firmsthatoncebashedeverythingoutofsteelnowfindthatnewalloysorcompositematerials(whichcanbemadefrommixturesofplastic,resin,ceramicsandmetals,reinforcedwithfibressuchasglassorcarbon)arechangingtherulesofmanufacturing.Atthesametime,oldmaterialskeepgettingbetter,astheirproducerstrytosecuretheirplaceinthefactoryofthefuture.Thiscompetitionisincreasingthepaceofdevelopmentofallmaterials.OnecompanyinthisfieldisScaledComposites.Itwasstartedin1982byBurtRutan,anaviatorwhohasdevisedmanyunusualaircraft.IthasalsoworkedoncompositesailsfortheAmerica'sCupyachtraceandonGeneralMotors'Ultralite,a100-milesper-gallonexperimentalfamilycarbuiltfromcarbonfibre.Again,theRacoonreflectsthisracebetweentheoldandthenew.ItusesconventionalsteelandwhatRenaultdescribesasanew"high-limitelasticsteel"initschassis.Thissteelis30%lighterthantheusualkind.TheRacoonalsohaspartsmadefromcomposites.Renaultplanstoreplacethepetrolenginewithasmallgasturbine,whichcouldbemadefromheat-resistingceramics,anduseittorunageneratorthatwouldprovidepowerforelectricmotorsateachwheel.Withcompositesitispossibletobuildmanydifferentpartsintoasinglecomponent.Fiat,Italy'sbiggestcarmaker,hasworkedoutthatitcouldreducethenumberofcomponentsneededinoneofitscarbodiesfrom150to16byusingacompositeshellratherthanonemadeofsteel.Aircraftandcarsmayincreasinglybeassembledasiftheywereplastickits.Advancesinenginetechnologyalsomakecarslighter.TheUltralite,whichScaledCompositeshelpedtodesignforGeneralMotors,usesatwo-strokeengineina"powerpod"attherearofthevehicle.TheenginehasbeendevelopedfromanEastGermandesignandweighs40%lessthanaconventionalenginebutproducesasmuchpower.Itisexpectedtoruncleanlyenoughtoqualifyasanultra-lowemissionsvehicleunderCalifornia'stoughnewrules.

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF TALL BUILDINGS 1 Until the nineteenth century, most tall buildings were constructed of load-bearing masonry walls. Masonry walls had to be thick, particularly at the base, to support a building's great weight. Stoneworkers built these walls by placing stone upon stone or brick upon brick, adding strength and stability by placing layers of mortar or cement between the stones. Floors and roofs had to be supported by wooden beams, but the major vertical force of buildings was supported by thick masonry walls. This imposed serious limitations on the number and size of windows. 2 In the 1850s, an alternative was emerging that would eliminate the need for exterior weight-bearing walls: a three-dimensional grid of metal beams and columns. The introduction of metal construction made it possible to build larger interior spaces with fewer columns than before. The new construction was capable of supporting all the loads to which a building might be subjected, including the vertical forces caused by the weight of the floors and the horizontal forces caused by the wind or earthquakes. 3 The first buildings to depart from the load-bearing wall tradition were iron-framed. Wrought iron, shaped by hammering the heated metal or roiling it under extreme pressure, contains almost no carbon, and when used as floor beams, it can support a great deal of weight. An interior wrought iron skeleton supported all of the hnilding's weight. Exterior walls of reinforced concrete acted mainly as weatherproofing.As masonry yielded to concrete, walls that once bore weight evolved into thin curtain walls that would allow more windows. These modifications produced sturdier, lighter, and taller buildings that quickly became known as skyscrapers. Skyscrapers satisfied the growing need for office space, warehouses, and department stores. Buildings of eight or more stories quickly transformed the city skyline and dominated the central business districts of American cities such as New York, Chicago, and St. Louis. 4 Skyscrapers differed from previous tall structures with their use of technical innovations such as cast iron and the elevator. The development of cast iron technology, in which molten iron is poured into a mold, made modern plumbing possible. Cast iron pipes, fittings, and valves could deliver pressurized water to the many floors of tall buildings and drain wastewater out. The invention of the mechanical elevator made it possible to construct even taller buildings. Before the elevator, office buildings were rarely more than four or five stories high. In 1857, the first passenger elevator equipped with safety brakes prevented the elevator from falling to the basement when a cable broke. The elevator made the upper floors as rentable as the first floor, liberating architecture from dependence on stairways and human muscle. 5 Not only did these innovations have important uses in the engineering of tall buildings, but they also erased the traditional architectural distinctions separating the bottom, middle, and top of a building. Architects designed towers that reached to the heavens in a continuous vertical grid. Iron construction established the principle of repetitive rhythms as a natural expression of construction, as well as the idea that buildings could be made of new materials on a vast scale. 6 Construction techniques were refined and extended over the next several decades to produce what architectural historians have called "true skyscrapers," buildings over twenty stories high. The invention of steel was particularly significanti as steel T-beams and I-beams replaced iron in these new structures. Steel weighs less than half as much as masonry and exceeds both masonry and iron in tension and compression strength as well as resistance to fatigue. Steel rivets replaced iron bolts and were in turn replaced by electric arc welding in the 1920s. The skyscraper's steel skeleton could meet all of the structural requirements while occupying very little interior space. Exterior curtain walls could be quite thin, since their only function now was to let in light and keep the weather out.

Select the appropriate sentences from the answer choices and match them to the type of government that they describe. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points. Answer Choices A. The leader's authority to rule is usually hereditary and lifelong. B. An elected executive is responsible to the will of the people as a whole. C. Every political unit is subject to the control of the unit just above it. D. A powerful leader and party have total control of the government. E. In some places, the ruler is the symbolic head of a parliamentary state. F. Government is based on a belief in popular sovereignty. G. Private corporations make up the bureaucratic administration.

THE NORSE IN NORTH AMERICA 1 The Norse made the first documented European voyages to North America, and there is evidence of these visits in the medieval sagas, a collection of stories that tell the history of the Icelandic people. The Icelandic sagas relate how the Norse captain Leif Eriksson and his brother sailed from Norway to Greenland and landed to the west of Greenland. The sagas also describe Thorfinn Karlsefni"s attempt to colonize a place called Vinland. Although some historians doubt their accuracy, the sagas are a source of intriguing details, and until the twentieth century they were the primary source of information about the Norse exploration of North America. 2 In the tenth century, Norsemen ventured from their homeland in Scandinavia to build settlements on the Greenland coast. A trader named Bjarni Herjolfsson sailed for Greenland in the summer of 985 or 986. Driven off course by a storm, he subsequently discovered a coastline he described as wooded and hilly. Although Bjarni did not go ashore, this discovery made him the first European to set eyes on the continent of North America. Bjarni"s account of his voyage encouraged another Norseman, Leif Eriksson, to undertake a southward voyage, starting around the year 1000, with a crew of 35 men. 3 According to the sagas, Leif Eriksson and his men first landed in a place they called Stoneland, which was probably the rocky, barren Labrador coast of North America. The party finally landed in a place they called Vinland, where they spent a winter in rough huts in a seemingly frost-free land of abundant vines and wild grapes. They established the first European colony in North America at Vinland, the precise location of which remains a subject of scholarly dispute to this day. The Norsemen returned home in the spring, abandoning the rude settlement that, a few years later, would serve as home base for Thorfinn Karlsefni of Greenland. 4 Around 1004, the expedition led by Thorfinn set off southward, evidently with a longer stay in mind, as women and cattle accompanied the sailors in three ships. The party of 160 made several landings and eventually found a place with vines, where they settled at a site up a river that widened into a lake. They passed two years at Vinland, exploring the coast, building huts, fishing, and gathering native foods. During that time, Thorfinn"s wife gave birth to a boy, the first child of European descent born in the Americas. The settlers had several hostile encounters with the local aboriginal tribes, whom they called "skrelings." In one fight with a native group, Thorfinn and another Norseman were killed. The continuing prospect of attack and growing dissension in the settlement may have thwarted the Norse attempt at colonization. For some reason, they departed their settlement; however, Greenlanders continued to make occasional visits there in later years, using it as a fishing camp. Historians have made many attempts to identify the lands visited by Thorfinn and to discover his campsites, but no single theory has won general acceptance. 5 In the twentieth century, the Icelandic sagas served as inspiration for Norwegian explorer and writer Helge Ingstad, who in the early 1960s traveled the coasts of eastern North America searching for evidence of Vinland. Encouraged by an alternative interpretation of "vin" as meaning "meadow" rather than vine or wine, Ingstad discovered a grassy site on the northern tip of Newfoundland that local people had believed was an aboriginal site haunted by ancient ghosts. Ingstad excavated the remains of eight sod huts, together with bronze and stone tools of Norse origin. He concluded that the grassland called L"Anse aux Meadows was, if not the Vinland of the sagas, then certainly a Norse settlement of some kind. 6 Huddled for protection from the wind, the cluster of sod-built structures at L"Anse aux Meadows was no temporary camp. Sod walls and sod roofs built over a timber frame indicated dwellings that were substantial enough for permanent occupation. The eight huts included three long, narrow buildings with features similar to those found in Norse structures in Greenland and Iceland. The largest of these measured 29 by 15 meters and consisted of several rooms. Smaller buildings, probably used for storage and workshops, included a forge that used iron ore extracted from peat bogs—evidence of the first iron working in North America. Also among the artifacts were a spindle and a bone knitting needle, suggesting the presence of women in the settlement. Glossary: sod: soil held together by the roots of grass

EricCarleEricCarleisacclaimedandbelovedasthecreatorofbrilliantlyillustratedandinnovativelydesignedpicturebooksforveryyoungchildren.Carle'sbooksutilizeboldcolorandinnovativetechniquestotryandstimulateachild'simaginationinordertofacilitatethechild'stransitionfromhometoschool.TheVeryHungryCaterpillar,forexample,isdesignedwithscallopedholesthroughthepagestodemonstratehowacaterpillareatsthroughdifferentmaterials.Thisbookhaseatenitswayintotheheartsofliterallymillionsofchildrenallovertheworldandhasbeentranslatedintomorethan30languagesandsoldover22millioncopies.SincetheCaterpillarwaspublishedin1969,ErieCarlehasillustratedmorethanseventybooks,manybestsellers,mostofwhichhealsowrote,andmorethan71millioncopiesofhisbookshavesoldaroundtheworld.BorninSyracuse,NewYork,in1929,EricCarlemovedwithhisparentstoGermanywhenhewassixyearsold;hewaseducatedthere,andgraduatedfromtheprestigiousartschool,theAkademiederBildendenKunste,inStuttgart.ButhisdreamwasalwaystoreturntoAmerica,thelandofhishappiestchildhoodmemories.So,in1952,withafineportfolioinhandandfortydollarsinhispocket,hearrivedinNewYork.Later,hewastheartdirectorofanadvertisingagencyformanyyears.Oneday,respectededucatorandauthor,BillMartinJr.,calledtoaskCarletoillustrateastoryhehadwritten.Martin'seyehadbeencaughtbyastrikingpictureofaredlobsterthatcarlehadcreatedforanadvertisement.BrownBear,BrownBear,WhatDoYouSee?wastheresultoftheircollaboration.Itisstillafavoritewithchildreneverywhere.ThiswasthebeginningofEricCarle'struecareer.SoonCarlewaswritinghisownstories,too.Hisfirstwhollyoriginalbookwas1,2,3totheZoo,followedsoonafterwardbythecelebratedclassic,TheVeryHungrgCaterpillar.EricCarle'sartisdistinctiveandinstantlyrecognizable.Hisartworkiscreatedincollagetechnique,usinghand-paintedpapers,whichhecutsandlayerstoformbright,andcheerfulimages.Manyofhisbookshaveanaddeddimension-die-cutpages,twinklinglightsasinTheVeryLonelyFirefly,eventhelifelikesoundofacricket'ssongasinTheVeryQuietCricket--givingthemaplayfulquality:atoythatcanberead,abookthatcanbetouched.Childrenalsoenjoyworkingincollageandmanysendhimpicturestheyhavemadethemselves,inspiredbyhisillustrations.Hereceiveshundredsofletterseachweekfromhisyoungadmirers.ThesecretofEricCarle'sbooks'appealliesinhisintuitiveunderstandingofandrespectforchildren,whosenseinhiminstinctivelysomeonewhosharestheirmostcherishedthoughtsandemotions.Thethemesofhisstoriesareusuallydrawnfromhisextensiveknowledgeandloveofnatureandinterestsharedbymostsmallchildren.Besidesbeingbeautifulandentertaining,hisbooksalwaysofferthechildtheopportunitytolearnsomethingabouttheworldaroundthem.Itishisconcernforchildren,fortheirfeelingsandtheirinquisitiveness,fortheircreativityandtheirintellectualgrowththat,inadditiontohisbeautifulartwork,makesthereadingofhisbookssuchastimulatingandlastingexperience.Carlesays:"WithmanyofmybooksIattempttobridgethegapbetweenthehomeandschool.Tomehomerepresents,orshouldrepresent;warmth,security,toys,holdinghands,beingheld.Schoolisastrangeandnewplaceforachild.Willitbeahappyplace?Therearenewpeople,ateacher,classmates-willtheybefriendly?Ibelievethepassagefromhometoschoolisthesecondbiggesttraumaofchildhood;thefirstis,ofcourse,beingborn.Indeed,inbothcasesweleaveaplaceofwarmthandprotectionforonethatisunknown.Theunknownoftenbringsfearwithit.InmybooksItrytocounteractthisfear,toreplaceitwithapositivemessage.Ibelievethatchildrenarenaturallycreativeandeagertolearn.Iwanttoshowthemthatlearningisreallybothfascinatingandfun."Glossary:Caterpillar:thewormlike,oftenbrightlycolored,hairyorspinylarvaofabutterflyormoth

AMessengerfromthePastHispeoplesaidgood-byeandwatchedhimwalkofftowardthemountains.Theyhadlittlereasontofearforhissafety:themanwaswelldressedininsulatedclothingandequippedwithtoolsneededtosurvivetheAlpineclimate.However,asweekspassedwithouthisreturn,theymusthavegrownworried,thenanxious,andfinallyresigned.Aftermanyyearseveryonewhoknewhimhaddied,andanoteevenamemoryofthemanremained.Then,onanimprobablydistantday,hecamedownfromthemountain.Thingshadchangedabit:itwasn'ttheBronzeAgeanymore,andhewasacelebrity.Whenameltingglacierreleaseditsholdona4,000-year-oldcorpseinSeptember,itwasquiterightlycalledoneofthemostimportantarcheologicalfindsofthecentury.DiscoveredbyaGermancouplehikingat10,500feetintheItalianTyrolneartheAustrianborder,thepartiallyfreeze-driedbodystillworeremnantsofleathergarmentsandbootsthathadbeenstuffedwithstrawforinsulation.ThehikersalertedscientistsfromtheUniversityofInnsbruckinAustria,whosemorecompleteexaminationrevealedthatthemanwastattooedonhisbackandbehindhisknee.AthissidewasabronzeaxofatypetypicalinsoutherncentralEuropearound2000BC.Onhisexpeditionperhapstohuntortosearchformetalore--hehadalsocarriedanall-purposestoneknife,awoodenbackpack,abowandaquiver,asmallbagcontainingaflintlighterandkindling,andanarrowrepairkitinaleatherpouch.SucheverydaygeargivesanunprecedentedperspectiveonlifeinearlyBronzeAgeEurope."Themostexcitingthingisthatwegenuinelyappeartobelookingatamanwhohadsomekindofaccidentinthecourseofaperfectlyordinarytrip,"saysarcheologistIanKinnesoftheBritishMuseum."Thesearenotartifactsplacedinagrave,butthefellow'sownpossessions."UnliketheEgyptiansandMesopotamiansofthetime,whohadmoreadvancedcivilizationswithcitiesandcentralauthority,theIceManandhiscountrymenlivedinasocietybuiltaroundsmall,stablevillages.HeprobablyspokeinatongueancestraltocurrentEuropeanlanguages.Furthermore,thoughhewasamemberofafarmingculture,hemaywellhavebeenhuntingwhenhedied,toaddmeattohisfamily'sdiet.X-raysofthequivershowedthatitcontained14arrows.Whilehisbackpackwasempty,carefulexplorationofthetrenchwherehediedrevealedremnantsofanimalskinandbonesatthesamespotwherethepacklay.Therewasalsotheremainderofapileofberries.Clearlythemandidn'tstarvetodeath.Thetrenchprovidedhimsowithshelterfromtheelements,andhealsohadabraidedmatofgrasstokeephimwarm.IfinjuryorillnesscausedtheIceMan'sdeath,anautopsyonthe4,000-year-oldvictimcouldturnupsomeclues.Thecircumstancesofhisdeathmayhavepreservedsuchevidence,aswellasotherdetailsofhislife.Freeze-driedbythefrigidclimate,hisinnerorgansandothersofttissuesaremuchbetterpreservedthanthoseofdried-upEgyptianmummiesorthewaterloggedScandinavian"BogMen"foundinrecentyears.Oneconcern,voicedbyarcheologistColinRenfrewofCambridgeUniversity,isthatthehotTVlightsthatgreetedthehunter'sreturntocivilizationmayhavedamagedthesefragiletissues,jeopardizingachancetorecoveradditionalpreciousgeneticinformationfromhischromosomes.Ifnot,Renfrewsays,"itmaybepossibletogetverylongDNAsequencesoutofthismaterial.Thisisfarandawaythemostexcitingaspectofthediscovery."Forthetimebeing,allbiologicalresearchhasliterallybeenputoniceattheUniversityofInnsbruckwhileaninternationalteamofexperts,ledbyresearcherKonradSpindler,puzzlesoutawaytothawthebodywithoutdestroyingit.Assensationalasitsounds,itremainstobeseenhowuseful4,000-year-oldhumanDNAwillreallybe."Theproblemisthatwearedealingwithasingleindividual,"saysevolutionarybiologistRobertSokaloftheStateUniversityofNewYorkatStonyBrook."Inordertomakestatementsaboutthepopulationthatexistedatthetime,weneedmorespecimens."Thewishformoremessengersfromthepastmayyetcometrue.Fivemorebodiesofmountainclimbers,allofwhomdiedwithinthepast50years,haveemergedfrommeltingAustrianmountainicethissummer.TheIceMan'sreturnfromtheTyrolhasdemonstratedthatthelocalclimateiswarmernowthanithasbeenfor4,000years.Peoplearebeginningtowonder--andplanfor--whatthemeltingicemayrevealnext."Nooneeverthoughtthiscouldhappen,"saysChristopherStringer,ananthropologistattheNaturalHistoryMuseuminLondon."Thefactthatithasoccurredoncemeansthatpeoplewillnowbelookingforitagain./

Benjamin Graham Benjamin Graham was a noted economist who formulated his theories on stock market investment in response to the great stock market collapse of 1929. Specifically, he viewed the collapse of the stock market as a result of people following market trends too closely. In fact, he often used a character called "Mr. Market" in his works to demonstrate how foolish it was to simply fall into line with market trends. If a person called "Mr. Market" appeared on your doorstep each day and offered random prices for various stocks, you would not accept every offer he made, since some of those offers would be utterly ridiculous. Instead, Benjamin Graham argued, a person who wishes to do well in the stock market should seek out stocks that are being sold for less than their value should be in a rational market. This was something he called value investing. The problem, of course, lies in figuring out what a stock's ideal value should be. To do this, Graham believed that before buying a stock, an investor should analyze that company's assets and liabilities to determine its true financial situation. If that situation looked good, and seemed as if it should allow the company to command a higher stock price than it was actually charging, then it was a good buy. When it came to determining which stocks were below ideal market value, Benjamin Graham emphasized studying those aspects of a company that were easily quantifiable. In his original version of the theory of value investing, he simply looked for stocks that were trading for slightly less than their so-called "book value." A company's book value is how much net worth it has according to its accounting books, which list all of its liabilities, expenses, revenue, and assets. Most economists later viewed this as a flawed approach, since some assets, such as computers, tractors, and cars, depreciate in value almost as soon as they are acquired. They argued that the value of a company's assets should be measured not by their book value, but by how much money they were likely to make the company in future. Others pointed out that some industries are so unstable that it is difficult to meaningfully quantify the assets of the companies involved in them. Still others have criticized Graham's theory for ignoring factors that cannot be easily quantified, such as the quality of a company's leadership. Despite this criticism, studies have shown that value investing seems to increase an investor's chance of making money on the stock exchange. To most people today, Graham's basic theory may seem like little more than common sense; yet there are still many investors who allow themselves to get caught up in the excitement of market fluctuations and who stop making rational investment decisions. We see this in the creation and bursting of stock bubbles. A stock bubble occurs when people focus purely on market trends without stopping to examine the actual worth of the companies whose stock they are buying. Normally, this is driven by a belief that companiesin a certain sector are on the verge of a breakthrough that will drive their profits up. Investors pour money into buying these companies' stocks, which drives up the stocks' price. This in turn makes their investment seem good to others, who then follow suit, driving the price up even higher and encouraging still more people to invest in those stocks. This upward cycle cannot continue indefinitely, however. Eventually, the stock prices are so much higher than those companies' financial positions should allow that some of the investors get nervous and start selling stock. The prices then begin to drop, and everyone involved panics, trying to sell at the same time, rendering those stocks virtually worthless. In a very real sense, the stock market crash that launched the Great Depression was a result of the first stock market bubble bursting. The problem was that since no one knew about the bubble phenomenon, the entire market became one big bubble. Today, when bubbles occur, most investors are cushioned from the effects by the fact that the bubble bursting only affects one segment of the market. For example, in the late 1990s, many people got carried away with the surge in popularity of the Internet. With so many people spending so much of their time online, the reasoning went that it was only a matter of time before they began shopping online as well. Companies that got online first would secure the majority of their business sectors' market share. Surely such companies were good investments, or so many people thought. The problem with this reasoning is that it is based on market trends. ■(A) As more people bought stock in new "dotcom" companies, the stock prices rose, making those stocks seem more attractive to investors. ■(B) However, most of the companies selling stock had no solid business plan, nor any way to convince people to engage in online transactions widely seen as insecure. ■(C) They never made any real money, and eventually all of the people who invested in dotcom companies lost their investments. ■(D) However, most of these people were also invested in other traditional stocks as well, which meant they did not lose everything when the dotcom bubble burst.

Listening8"EnvironmentalScienceClass"

Listentopartofalectureinahistoryclass.Nowgetreadytoanswerthequestions.Youmayuseyournotestohelpyouanswer.