Archeology Archeology, the branch of anthropology that is devoted to the study of the human past, often focuses on the period before people began to keep written records. Archeologists study the origin, spread, and evolution of culture by examining the remains of past societies. They share the task of other kinds of anthropologists in that they are trying to understand human behavior. The difference is that their materials are generally the unwritten records of past societies. They cannot sit down with living members of those societies and talk about what they have found. They cannot even observe living people, but must interpret the material evidence left by people long dead. Many archeologists distinguish between prehistoric archeology, which is the study of extinct cultures that left no written records, and historic archeology, which is the investigation of those groups for whom there are written materials to accompany the archeological evidence. What, then, can archeology contribute to our understanding of human culture and social behavior? First, we can learn much about the technology of early peoples through their material remains, as well as through analysis of such aspects of their life style as what they ate. We can tell, for example, whether a particular group lived mainly by hunting or fishing or by farming. A second aspect of the life of early peoples that is revealed to us through archeology is their economic practices. For example, sometimes we find pottery or jewelry made from materials that are known to have been available only in distant places. This usually means that these items were not made at the site but were obtained through some other means—either by traveling to the place where they are available or by trading with other groups. If we put together a picture of the distribution of such items over time, we can get an idea of the interactions among neighboring groups, and this in turn gives us clues about other aspects of culture that might have been borrowed or traded as well. Less evident than economics or technology, but still recognizable, is the political and social structure of past cultures. We can assume a great deal about the way a city was organized from the layout of the buildings and the types of housing found there. For example, if we find a large temple in the center of an ancient city and it is surrounded by fairly large dwelling sites, while the buildings on the outskirts of the settlement are smaller, we know that there were probably at least two classes of people and that the temple was at the center of the city not only in a physical sense but socially as well. Finally, archeological evidence can reveal a great deal about certain aspects of the religious and spiritual life of ancient societies. A. [■] When we are fortunate enough to find temples or other religious structures, we can determine their importance and their influence on the society.B. [■]But in other areas, it is very hard to interpret the evidence.C. [■] Thus we know little about ancient peoples' belief systems, or their values and morals, their feelings about spirits, and so forth.D. [■] Even when we find material objects that might suggest such beliefs, we cannot ask anyone to explain their meaning but must go on what we know about other aspects of that society and later societies that seem to be similar to it. In sum, archeology gives us a chance to look into the past of the human species. But it is like doing a jigsaw puzzle with most of the pieces missing, and without a picture of the finished puzzle on the box to work from. We have a few things that fit together: we can guess about many others; but we really don't have enough to put it all together with complete confidence. Every new piece we find fits somewhere, though, and we never know when the next piece will give us the key to a whole new section of the puzzle of life in prehistoric times. That is the challenge and the excitement of archeology.

Listening5"AstronomyClass"

THE ILLUSION OF FILM1 Film is an illusion because the moving pictures seen on the screen are not moving at all. A fihn is actually a series of tiny still pictures, or flames. They appear to be moving because the retina of the human eye retains the impression of an object for a split second after that object has actually disappeared. This principle is known as the persistence of vision. When we look at a single frame of film, the image persists in the brain's visual center for a fraction of a second. Then, the next frame comes along and the brain has to catch up with the new image. Thus, our eyes and brain trick us into thinking that we see a smoothly moving image rather than a series of still ones. 2 Another illusion of film is known collectively as special effects, the tricks and techniques that filmmakers use when makeup, costume, and stunts are still not enough to make a scene convincing. Special effects artists apply science to filmmaking, showing us things that no plain camera could ever photograph. Even since the introduction of computer graphics in recent decades, the films of today still rely on some special effects that have existed since the early years of cinema.3 One category of special effects is called optical or visual effects, tricks made with the camera. One of the pioneers of optical effects was the French filmmaker Georges Méliès, who invented a technique called stop-motion photography. With this technique, a scene is filmed, the camera is stopped, the scene is changed in some way, and then the camera rolls again. Stop motion photography can create th.e illusion of an actor disappearing on screen. In one short film, an actor's clothes keep returning to his body as he tries to get undressed. Méliès also invented a technique known as split screen. By putting a card over the camera lens, he prevented half of the frame of fihn from being exposed. He filmed a scene on the uncovered half of the frame and then backed up the same strip of fihn in his camera. For the second shot, he covered the exposed half and took another series of pictures on the half that had been covered the first time. With the technique of split screen, it is possible to achieve illusions such as having the same actor play twins. 4 Mechanical effects are another category of special effects. Mechanical effects are objects or devices used during the filming to create an illusion, such as feathers or plastic chips to simulate snow, and wires to create the illusion that people are flying. Many sound effects are mechanical effects. Wood blocks create a horse's hoofbeats, and a vibrating sheet of metal sounds like thunder. During the silent film era, the music machine called the Kinematophone was popular because it could produce the sounds of sirens, sleigh bells, gunfire, baby cries, and kisses-all at the press of a key. 5 Other mechanical effects are puppets, robots of all sizes, and tiny copies of buildings or cities. To reduce the cost of studio sets or location photography, special-effects technicians create painted or projected backgrounds, which replace the set or add to it. For example, in a long shot of a town, the set might be only a few feet high, and the remainder of the town is painted onto a sheet of glass positioned in fiont of the camera during filming. In a 1916 silent film called The Flying Torpedo, mechanical effects created the appearance of an enemy invasion of the California seacoast. Technicians threw small contact-rigged explosives into toy cities, scattering the tiny buildings into the air. An artist painted a row of battleships on a board that was only six feet long. Carpenters drilled small holes in the ships, which were filled with small charges of flash powder to simulate guns. An electrician wired the charges so they could be fired on cue from a small battery. For audiences of the time, the effect was of a real fleet of ships firing on the California coast. 6 Sometimes optical and mechanical effects are used together. For the original 1933 version of King Kong, the filmmakers wanted to show the giant ape climbing the Empire State Building in New York City. To show Kong's climb, the special-effects technicians built a tiny movable model of the ape and a proportionately small model of the Empire State Building. Then, stop-motion photography was used to create the illusion that Kong was moving up the building.

Urbanization and City Infrastructure Urbanization is defined as the increase in a city's population over time and can occur due to a variety of factors including the natural expansion of a city's population, the conversion of a rural area to an urban one, or the migration to urban areas by those who previously inhabited rural environments. ■(A) Urbanization is an ever-increasing trend; one that can be observed in areas throughout the world as economies begin to rely more on manufacturing and business for revenue. ■(B) Working and living in large cities is gradually replacing the traditional rural careers such as small-scale agriculture. ■(C) It is estimated that within the next century, more than half of the world's citizens will reside in cities. ■(D) While some cities are planned, most cities are organic, meaning that urbanization in these areas takes place with little or no advanced planning. While the increase in urban areas and its population has yielded positive effects such as an increased concentration of businesses and more career opportunities, researchers have also discovered a host of detrimental effects on the areas in transformation from rural areas to urban centers. The concerns about urbanized areas worldwide differ somewhat in their relative importance, but many cite traffic congestion, inadequate public transportation, insufficient waste disposal facilities, inadequate solid waste collection, and a lack of water and sewage treatment facilities as primary concerns. One hundred years ago in Australia, the commute from Paramatta to the center of Sydney took approximately an hour by horse and cart. Today, the same trip in a car takes longer. Opponents of unplanned urbanization have also pointed out the destruction of agricultural land and animal habitat as a negative consequence of urbanization. Many of these problems could be eliminated, or at least mitigated, through the construction and maintenance of appropriate city infrastructure. Although the term is somewhat ambiguous, it was traditionally understood to mean roads and sewers. However, the U.S. National Research Council opted to widen the definition of public works infrastructure to refer to roads, bridges, mass transit systems, and water and waste management systems. Chief among the concerns of city dwellers is the issue of traffic jams and general congestion, and the corresponding difficulty in navigating the streets of any large urban area. Appropriate infrastructure, however, could serve as a useful tool in curtailing this problem. Two factors that exacerbate traffic congestion in a typical city are narrow streets and a lack of off-road parking, which would force many workers to park on the side of the road. Several solutions to the excessive traffic in urban areas have been proposed. Firstly, the construction of bypasses would eliminate the amount of traffic in the downtown areas, as travelers could use faster, more direct routes to arrive at their destination. Parking concerns could be addressed by constructing parking garages consisting of several stories. In this way, many cars could be stored in a relatively small amount of space. Closely related to the previous problem is the issue of inadequate public transportation. People will choose to ride buses; however, the system must be efficient and reliable. The establishment of a variety of mass transit systems such as subways, buses, and ferries could provide a feasible alternative to those that use their own vehicles to travel to their jobs in the city. Many cities have concerns about the problems involving waste collection and disposal. Along with education about waste diversion techniques such as composting and recycling, the development of city infrastructure can play a key role in ensuring adequate waste treatment. This would include the construction of easily accessible recycling facilities and appropriately placed composting facilities. In addition, urban areas should ensure there is a citywide transit system in place to collect solid waste. Finally, citizens in many urban areas have concerns regarding sewage treatment plants and water treatment facilities. The development of such facilities in an acceptable area, typically in a location outside of the city, could effectively deal with these concerns. Not only would this infrastructure improve the health of the citizens, but it would also benefit the environment by reducing the amount of pollution in the form of sewage entering water sources.

{{B}}Set 4{{/B}} THE TRICKSTER FIGURE IN MYTHOLOGY1 In the study of mythology, the character known as the trickster is a god, spirit, human, or animal who breaks the rules of the gods or nature, sometimes maliciously but usually with results that are positive. The rule breaking often takes the form of {{B}}mischief{{/B}} or {{B}}thievery{{/B}}. The trickster is usually male but occasionally disguises himself in female form. He can be cunning or foolish, or both, and often very humorous. His curiosity leads him into trouble, but he rescues himself with his sly wit. {{U}}When he plays tricks, he performs important cultural tasks that benefit humans, and for this reason the trickster is a significant figure in world mythology. {{/U}}2 In different cultures, the trickster and the hero are combined in various ways. In Greek mythology, Prometheus steals fire from the gods and gives it to humans, a feat making him more of a hero than a trickster, and he is usually portrayed as an intellectual. In many Native American stories, Coyote also steals fire from the gods, but Coyote is usually more of a jokester or a prankster than an intellectual. 3 The trickster is both creator and destroyer, giver and taker, one who tricks others and is tricked in return. The {{U}}pranks{{/U}} of the trickster are compulsive and uncontrollable. He does not act consciously; he acts out of passion and impulse. He knows neither good nor evil, yet he is responsible for {{U}}both{{/U}}. He possesses no morals, yet through his behavior morality comes into being. According to psychologist Carl Jung, the trickster is "a primitive cosmic being of divine-animal nature, on the one hand superior to man because of his superhuman qualities, and on the other hand inferior to him because of his unreason and unconsciousness." 4 In Native American mythology, the majority of trickster myths concern the creation or transformation of the earth. Such stories have a trickster who is always wandering, who is always hungry, who is not guided by normal ideas of good and evil, and who possesses some magical powers. In some stories he is a deity, and in others he is an animal or human subject to death. Several of these myths feature Raven or Coyote as the trickster-hero. 5 In many creation myths of the Pacific Northwest, Raven illustrates the transformational nature of tricksters. Raven is the greatest shapeshifter of all and can change into anything to get what he wants. In one story, there is darkness at the beginning of the world, so Raven decides he will find light. He flies far from the earth, searching in the darkness, until he spots a glimmer of light coming from a window in the house of the gods. Raven knows the gods are protective of their possessions, so he devises a trick. He perches on a pine branch next to the house and watches each day as the chief god's daughter draws water from a nearby lake. He magically transforms himself into a {{B}}pinyon seed{{/B}} and falls into the girl's drinking cup. The girl swallows the seed, which grows within her body, and she eventually gives birth to a boy. The child delights his grandparents, and his laughter tricks the elder gods into revealing where they hide a shining ball of light. The gods give the child the ball to play with, and then Raven transforms back to a bird and flies off carrying the ball of light in his beak. He hangs the ball-the sun-in the sky, bringing light to the world. 6 Coyote's character is similar to that of Raven's, and both appear in stories carrying out similar roles. In several stories from the American Southwest, Coyote steals fire from a group of "fire beings" and gives it to humans. In some tales Coyote wants to make human life more interesting, so he introduces sickness, sorrow, and death. He often teaches through negative example by employing the human vices of lying, cheating, and stealing. His tricks often bring about destructive natural phenomena, such as a great flood that destroys the earth. However, by causing the flood, Coyote leads the human race to a new and better world. Coyote shows us that at the heart of the trickster is a {{U}}savior{{/U}} whose great gift to humans is showing them new ways of knowing and doing. Glossary: mischief: tendency to play tricks or cause minor trouble mischief: the act of theft; stealing pinyon seed: the seed of a pine tree; pine nut

READING SECTION DIRECTIONS The Reading section measures your ability to read and understand passages in English. You will read five passages and answer questions about them. Answer all questions based on what is stated or implied in the passages. Most questions are worth one point. The last question in each set is worth more than one point. For this question, the directions will indicate how many points you can receive. Some passages have one or more words in bold type. For these bolded words, you will see a definition in a glossary at the end of the passage. Allow 20 minutes to read each passage and answer the questions about it. You may now begin the first passage. {{B}}Set 1{{/B}} NORTH AMERICAN GRASSLANDS1 In North America, native grasslands occur primarily in the Great Plains in the middle of the continent. The North American prairie biome is one of the most extensive grasslands in the world, extending from the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the west to the deciduous forest in the east, and from northern Mexico in the south to Canada in the north. Average annual rainfall ranges from about 40 cm (16 inches) in the west to 80 cm (31 inches) in the east. Average annual temperatures range between 10 degrees and 20 degrees Celsius (50 to 68 degrees Fahrenheit). In the moist regions of the North American grasslands, especially in the northern Great Plains, rainfall is distinctly seasonal, and temperatures can vary widely from very hot in summer to bitter cold in winter. 2 One hundred years ago, the Great Plains grasslands were one vast, unbroken prairie. Much of the prairie is now farmland, the most productive agricultural region in the world, dominated by {{B}}monocultures{{/B}} of cereal grains. Wheat, barley, soybeans, corn, and sunflowers occupy the land that was once prairie. In areas given over to grazing lands for cattle and sheep, virtually all the major native grasses have been replaced by {{U}}alien{{/U}} species. 3 An important feature of the northern Great Plains grasslands is the presence of millions of glacial depressions that are now small ponds known as prairie potholes. They were formed during the most recent Ice Age, when streams flowed in tunnels beneath glacially formed sandy ridges. When the Ice Age ended around 12,000 years ago, the retreating glaciers created about 25 million depressions across a 300,000-square-mile landscape—about 83 potholes per square mile. As the ice blocks melted, much of the water was left behind, forming wetlands ranging in size from a tenth of an acre to several acres. The wetlands were soon surrounded by fluttering waves of grasses: shortgrass, mixed grass, and tallgrass. 4 {{U}}Today these small wetlands still cover the prairies, although much of the landscape— including both native grasses and potholes—has been transformed to cropland and grassland for grazing.{{/U}} What does remain of the wetlands, however, still serves as an important breeding area for more than 300 bird species, including large numbers of migrating shorebirds and waterfowl. The potholes fill up with water during spring rains and usually dry out by late summer. Every spring, birds arrive in great numbers—northern pintails, mallards, coots, and pied-billed grebes—4 to 6 million strong, to mate in the seasonal wetlands that dot portions of Minnesota, Iowa, North and South Dakota, Montana, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Prairie pothole country produces half of North America's 35 to 40 million ducks and is renowned worldwide as a "{{U}}duck factory{{/U}}." 5 Recently biologists have discovered that the prairie pothole region is potentially a vast carbon sink: a natural sponge that absorbs carbon dioxide emissions from cars, factories, and power plants. Carbon dioxide is the most common of all the pollutants acting as greenhouse gases that heat up the atmosphere. Fortunately, however, carbon dioxide is captured naturally and stored in trees, soil, and plants. Scientists have termed {{U}}this{{/U}} "carbon sequestration." They have determined that prairie potholes hold an average of 2.5 tons of carbon per acre per year when not being farmed. This means that if the entire pothole region in the United States and Canada were to stop being farmed, the region would store about 400 million tons of carbon over 10 years—the equivalent of taking almost 4 million cars off the road. Thus, preserving the potholes could be a way to {{U}}offset{{/U}} greenhouse gas emissions that are warming the planet. Glossary: biome: one of the world's major natural communities, classified by predominant vegetation monoculture: cultivation of large land areas with a single plant variety

Changing Courses Advisor: Good afternoon, Jeff Montgomery speaking. Student: Hello, I am Freida Redfern. I ______, but I don"t want to take it. I"ve changed my mind about ______ English literature. I want to ______. Advisor: If you need to change your course registration, you can download Form 6316 from the Forms Section ______ of the homepage of the university website or ______ from Room 10 on the ground floor of the Smiley Building. You must complete all sections, and then get the signature of the professor for the poetry course and the signature of the professor for the course you want to take. Finally, the back of the form must be signed by ______. Student: How long do I have to do this? Advisor: You must make the change within two weeks of the start date. Form 6316 must be in the ______ 14 days from the first day of class. You cannot drop a course if ______, or labs have started or if examinations have been written. Student: Do I ______ the poetry course and then pay for the music course? Advisor: No, the fees you paid for the poetry course will automatically ______ the new course. If there is a ______ and hence, the price of the course, you will be ______ by the Registrar within five working days. Student: Can I ______ the textbooks for the poetry course? Advisor: No, you would have to sell it privately or speak to the bookstore about ______. Student: How can I get more information on doing a minor in Music? Advisor: You need to contact the Music Department advisor. In some cases, you also need an interview with the Dean. Student: Is Music Appreciation 310 full or do you think I can ______? Advisor: You must contact the Music Department directly. The Music advisor can be contacted at 3878126. It is a very popular course so you should make sure you can ______ from the poetry course. You may find it difficult to find courses ______ to get into at this late date. Student: ______ I went to the Music Department in person? Advisor: It ______. Music Appreciation 310 can take 40 students, If the course is full, you can try speaking to the professor directly explaining why you want to get into the course, but it probably ______. Strident: Where would I find the instructor? Advisor: You would have to find out who is teaching the course, and then check the Music Building Directory to find the office room number to find out his or her office hours. All professors are ______. Student: Thanks for your help. Advisor: You"re welcome. Good luck with the change.

Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the trickster that they describe. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points. Answer Choices A. Introduces sickness, sorrow, and death to make life more interesting B. Transforms into various shapes to achieve his purposes C. Appears as an intellectual hero in stories of good and evil D. Creates a ball of silver light that becomes the moon E. Changes into a seed to gain entrance to the house of the gods F. Causes a great flood and then leads humans to a better world G. Brings light to the world by playing a trick on the gods

DRAMA IN ANCIENT GREECE1 Long before the ancient Greeks could read and write, they learned of their history and culture through epic poetry chanted by bards or singers. The bards chanted stories in standard musical phrases that were accompanied by musical instruments such as the lyre, a general name for any of several stringed instruments favored by the bards. The greatest bard, Homer, was a poet, singer and master of the lyre. According to tradition, Homer was a wandering minstrel who traveled from place to place chanting stories of gods and heroes. Another famous poet, singer, and lyre player was Sappho, who started a school for girls, where she taught the arts of music, poetry, and dance. 2 Greek civilization reached a {{U}}golden{{/U}} age during the fifth century BC, when politics, philosophy, art, architecture, and theater thrived, as they never had before. As the Greeks took new pride in human achievements, they developed ideals of beauty, order, balance, and moderation throughout their culture, including music and drama. 3 Early drama was associated with the worship of the god Dionysus and was an {{U}}outgrowth{{/U}} of the choral songs and dances performed in honor of the god. The famous outdoor Theater of Dionysus in Athens showed the importance of drama to the Greeks. It was situated on a hillside to take advantage of the natural slope and light, and it could accommodate an audience of 30,000 people. A chorus of singers, dancers, and musicians, led by a singer who stood on steps above them, performed stories that educated and entertained the audience while honoring the god. 4 The crucial innovation that turned choral performance into drama is attributed to Thespis, a poet who is said to have originated tragedy. As the chorus sang the story of a hero or god, Thespis would enter the theater as a masked actor. Between songs, he recited verses as a character in the story, and these spoken verses changed what had been a choral monologue into a dialogue between the actor and the chorus. The {{U}}legacy{{/U}} of Thespis can be seen in the term "thespian," which now describes anything relating to drama. 5 Actors of that time wore a large mask made of linen or cork, inside {{U}}which{{/U}} was a device like a speaking trumpet to amplify the voice. When the actor recited, it was in an exalted monotone, often to the accompaniment of flutes. The chorus enhanced the tragedy with various dances and songs, generally accompanied by the lyre. The actor chanted the lines of the lead character, while the chorus sang the narrative passages. {{U}}Still, despite the attention the actor received, the Chorus and its music continued to dominate dramatic performances with the combined power of singing and dancing.{{/U}} 6 Like Thespis, the playwright Aeschylus acted in his own plays, but he added a second masked actor. Now audience attention could be directed to the interplay between the two actors—action and reaction, question and answer, conflict or cooperation—rather than between the actor and chorus. A later playwright, Sophocles, added a third actor. This made possible not only three-way dramatic scenes but also plays with a large cast of characters, since the masks allowed an actor to play more than one part in different scenes. The addition of actors shifted the focus of drama away from the chorus toward the action and dialogue of the characters. 7 Playwrights continued to introduce innovations, but essentially they {{U}}adhered to{{/U}} prescribed conventions. One of these conventions limited the number of scenes in a play to five. The drama always took place in one location and within a short span of time, sometimes a single day. Another convention reflected the society's sense of balance and order: bloody deeds rarely took place in front of the audience. Therefore, murders, suicides, and other acts of violence occurred offstage. The Greek concept of moderation is reflected in still another convention, in which any character who acted in an excess of passion was usually punished in the story. Glossary: choral: relating to a chorus, a group of singers or dancers who perform together chorus: a group of singers or dancers who perform together

NewWomenoftheIceAgeThestatusofwomeninasocietydependsinlargemeasureontheirroleintheeconomy.ThereinterpretationofthePaleolithicpastcentersonnewviewsoftheroleofwomeninthefood-foragingeconomy.AmassingcriticalandpreviouslyoverlookedevidencefromDolniVestoniceandtheneighboringsiteofPavlov,researchersOlgaSofter,JamesAdovasio,andDavidHylandnowproposethathumansurvivaltherehadlittletodowithmenhurlingspearsatbig-gameanimals.Instead,observesSofter,oneoftheworld'sleadingauthoritiesonIceAgehuntersandgatherersandanarcheologistattheUniversityofIllinoisinChampaign-Urbana,itdependedlargelyonwomen,plants,andatechniqueofhuntingpreviouslyinvisibleinthearcheologicalevidence--nethunting."Thisisnottheimagewe'vealwayshadofUpperPaleolithicmachoguysoutkillinganimalsupcloseandpersonal,"Softerexplains."Nethuntingiscommunal,anditinvolvesthelaborofchildrenandwomen.Andthishaslotsofimplications."Manyoftheseimplicationsmakeherconservativecolleaguescringebecausetheyraiseseriousquestionsaboutthefocusofpreviousstudies.Europeanarcheologistshavelongconcentratedonanalyzingbrokenstonetoolsandbutcheredbig-gamebones,themostplentifulandbestpreservedrelicsoftheUpperPaleolithicera(whichstretchedfrom40,000to12,000yearsago).Fromtheseanalyses,researchershavedevelopedtheoriesabouthowthesesocietiesoncehuntedandgatheredfood.Mostresearchersruledoutthepossibilityofwomenhuntersforbiologicalreasons.Adultfemales,theyreasoned,hadtodevotethemselvestobreast-feedingandtendinginfants."Humanbabieshavealwaysbeenimmatureanddependent,"saysSofter."Ifwomenarethepeoplewhoarealwaysinvolvedwithbiologicalreproductionandtherearingoftheyoung,thenthatisgoingtoconstraintheirbehavior.Theyhavetoprovisionthatchild.Forfathers,provisioningisoptional."TotesttheoriesaboutUpperPaleolithiclife,researcherslookedtoethnography,thescientificdescriptionofmodernandhistoricalculturalgroups.Whilethelivesofmodernhuntersdonotexactlyduplicatethoseofancienthunters,theysupplyvaluablecluestouniversalhumanbehavior.Inmanyhistoricalsocieties,Softerobserves,womenplayedakeypartinnethunting,sincethetechniquedidnotcallforbrutestrengthnordiditplaceyoungmothersinphysicalperil.AmongAustralianaborigines,forexample.Womenaswellasmenknottedthemesh,laboringforasmuchastwoorthreeyearsonafinenet.AmongnativeAmericangroups,theyhelpedlayouttheirhandiworkonpolesacrossavalleyfloor.Thentheentirecampjoinedforcesasbeaters.Fanningoutacrossthevalley,men,women,andchildrenalikeshoutedandscreamed,flushingoutgameanddrivingitinthedirectionofthenet."Everybodyandtheirmotherscouldparticipate,"saysSofter."Somepeoplewerebeating,otherswerescreamingorholdingthenet.Andonceyougotthenetontheseanimals,theywereimmobilized.Youdidn'tneedbruteforce.Youcouldclubthem,hitthemanyoldway."Peopleseldomreturnedhomeempty-handed.ResearcherslivingamongthenethuntingMbutiintheforestsoftheCongoreportthattheycapturegameeverytimetheylayouttheirwoventraps,scoopingup50percentoftheanimalsencountered."Netsareafarmorevalueditemintheirpanoplyoffood-producingthingsthanbowsandarrowsare,"saysAdovasio.SolethalarethesetrapsthattheMbutigenerallyrackupmoremeatthantheycanconsume,tradingthesurpluswithneighbors.Othernethunterstraditionallysmokedordriedtheircatchandstoreditforleanertimes.SofterdoubtsthattheinhabitantsofDolniVestoniceandPavlovweretheonlynetmakersinIceAgeEurope.CampsstretchingfromGermanytoRussiaarelitteredwithanotableabundanceofsmall-gamebones,fromharestobirdslikeptarmigan.Andatleastsomeoftheirinhabitantswhittledbonetoolsthatlookmuchliketheawlsandnetspacersfavoredbyhistoricalnetmakers.Althoughthefullrangeoftheiractivitiesisunlikelyevertobeknownforcertain,thereisgoodreasontobelievethatIceAgewomenplayedahostofpowerfulroles.Andtheresearchthatsuggeststhoserolesisrapidlychangingourmentalimagesofthepast.ForSofterandothers,theseareexcitingtimes.

{{B}}Set5HistoryLecture{{/B}}{{B}}Narrator{{/B}}Listentothelectureinbusinessclass

{{B}}Set 4 Conversation Oral Report{{/B}}

SanFrancisco:ItsContemporaryIssuesFamousforitsbeautifulsetting,SanFranciscoisbuiltonaseriesofsteephillslocatedonthenortherntipofapeninsulaattheentrancetoSanFranciscoBay.Thebayanditsextensions,whichincludeSanPabloBayandSuisunBay,constituteoneofthegreatnaturalharborsoftheworld,embracingnearly1,200sqkm(morethan450sqmi)ofwater.Becauseofthis,SanFranciscowasoncethemajorPacificCoastseaportoftheUnitedStates.Todaythecityisanimportantcenterforfinance,technology,tourism,andculture.ThecitywasnamedafterSanFranciscoBay,whichinturnwasnamedforSaintFrancisofAssisibyearlySpanishexplorers.ThepeopleofSanFranciscocantakeprideintheircity'saccomplishments.SanFranciscans,andinsomecasestheircounterpartsintheBayArea,havesuccessfullyundertakenmammothconstructionprojectssuchastheSanFrancisco-OaklandBayBridge,theGoldenGateBridge,andtheBayAreaRapidTransitsystem.Sinceatleastthe1950s,SanFranciscanshavealsoearnedareputationfortoleranceofandrespectfordiversity.Duringthelate1990sthegreatestprobleminSanFrancisco'sinfrastructurewastheMunicipalRailway.ProportionatelymoreSanFranciscansrelyonpublictransportationthandothepeopleinanyotherCaliforniacity,butriderscomplainedofseriousdelaysandovercrowding.Someimprovementswereunderwayby1999,andinthatyearcityvotersalsoapprovedmajorchangesintheorganizationalstructureofthecity'stransportationdepartments.ThemostserioussocialproblemsfacingthecityarenotuniquetoSanFrancisco,butsomehavetakenongreaterdimensionsinthecitythantheyhaveelsewhere.Onesuchproblemishomelessness.DuringtheadministrationofMayorArtAgnosfrom1988to1992,theplazainfrontofcityhallbecameanencampmentforhomelesspeople,renderingotheruseimpossibleandraisingpublichealthconcerns.Agnos'spoliticalopponentsdubbedit"CampAgnos"andthesituationcontributedtoAgnos'sdefeatin1991.Theproblemofhomelessnesspersistsdespitetheeffortsofcityagenciesandprivatecharitiestoprovideshelter,healthcare,anddrug,alcohol,andmentalhealthtreatment.Inthemidandlate1990smayorsFrankJordanandWillieBrownbothsoughttodiscouragehomelesspeoplefromlivinginpublicspaceinthedowntownareaand,inBrown'scase,inGoldenGatePark.However,residentsofotherareascomplainedthatbecauseoftheseprojects,thedisplacedhomelesshadmovedintotheirneighborhoods.Inotherareasthecityhasmadesomeprogresstowardaddressingsocialproblems.Aswastrueacrossmuchofthenation,thecrimerateinSanFranciscodroppedinthe1990s,asdidtherateofdrug-relatedviolence.Inaddition,somepublichomingprojectsinSanFranciscothatwereespeciallypronetoviolenceanddrug-relatedactivitywererazedandrebuiltwithdesignsconsideredlesslikelytoencouragethoseactivities.Otherpublichomingprojectsreceivedsteppedupsecuritypatrols.SomesocialcriticshavepointedtoanincreasingeconomicandsocialpolarizationofSanFrancisco'spopulation.Thosewhoworkinfinanceorhigh-techfieldsareincreasinglyaffluent,pushingrentsandhomepricestoamongthehighestlevelsinthenation.Atthesametime,peoplewholaborintheservicesectoroftenworkfortheminimumwage,cannotsharetheaffluentlifestylesaroundthem,andarehard-pressedtoaffordrisingrents.Thedisappearanceofmanyunionizedjobsinmanufacturingandonthewaterfrontmayhavecontributedtoareductioninopportunitiesforwell-payingjobsforthosewithoutcollegedegrees.Thiseconomicpolarizationcoincidesinpartwithethnicandeducationalpatterns.Workersinthelow-wageendoftheservicesector(includingmanyhotelandrestaurantworkersandmanybusinessserviceworkers)arelikelytohavelimitedEnglishproficiencyandahigh-schooleducationorless;manyworkersinthoseareasarealsodisproportionatelyAfricanAmericanandHispanic.Bycontrast,thosepeoplewhoworkinthefinanceandhigh-techsectorsaremorelikelytobewhiteorAsianAmericanandtohaveoneormorecollegedegrees.Glossary:Hispanic:oforrelatingtoSpainorSpanish-speakingLatinAmerica

CLOUD CLASSIFICATION 1 Clouds occur in a wide variety of forms because they are shaped by many processes operating in the atmosphere. The basic requirements for cloud formation are moist air and a lifting process. When humid air is lifted by rising currents, the water vapor eventually reaches its dew point, the temperature at which it condenses into a collection of water droplets. From the ground, we see these tiny particles as a cloud. If the droplets continue to acquire moisture and grow large enough, they fall from the cloud as rain or snow. 2 Clouds are classified according to their form, shape, and altitude, and by whether or not they produce precipitation. Based on form and shape, the simplest distinction is between clouds that have a heaped or a layered look. Based on altitude, the most common clouds are grouped into four families: low clouds, middle clouds, high clouds, and clouds exhibiting vertical development. Low, middle, and high clouds are produced by gentle uplift of air over broad areas. In contrast, those with vertical development generally cover smaller areas and are associated with much more vigorous uplift. 3 Among the first scientists to identify the importance of clouds in meteorology was British naturalist Luke Howard, who was also the first to devise a system for grouping clouds. Howard classified clouds by their appearance—heaped or layered—and named the three principal categories of clouds cumulus, stratus, and cirrus. He also described several intermediate and compound modifications in order to accommodate the transitions occurring between the forms. Developed in 1803, the essentials of Howard"s classification scheme are still in use today. Contemporary weather forecasters continue to divide clouds into two main groups: heaped clouds, resulting from rising unstable air currents; and layered clouds, resulting from stable air currents. 4 Most heaped clouds are cumulus: puffy white clouds capped with a cauliflower-like dome created by convection, the transfer of heat by moving air. Cumulus clouds form at low or middle altitudes, with bases ranging from 1,000 to 10,000 feet (303 to 3,033 meters) above the earth. Low-level cumulus clouds are detached from one another and generally have well-defined bases. Their outlines are sharp, and they often develop vertically in the form of rising puffs, mounds, domes, or towers. The sunlit parts are brilliant white; the base is relatively dark and roughly horizontal. Cumulus clouds are commonly known as fair-weather clouds because they usually do not produce precipitation. However, a variation known as cumulonimbus can reach great heights and have dense, glaciated tops that cause heavy rain, hail, or thunderstorms. 5 Stratus, or layered, clouds appear as large sheets, or strata, with minimal vertical and extended horizontal dimensions. The air around them is stable, with little or no convection present. Stratus clouds spread laterally to form layers that sometimes cover the entire sky, to the horizon and beyond, like a formless blanket. Stratus clouds have a relatively low base. They can be a uniform gray sheet, or a layer of patchy, shapeless, low gray clouds. The layer may be thin enough for the sun to shine through, but stratus clouds may also carry drizzle or snow, in which case they are called nimbostratus. 6 While cumulus and stratus clouds generally form at low or middle altitudes, cirrus clouds form at high altitudes. Cirrus clouds are detached clouds that take the form of delicate white filaments, strands, or hooks. These clouds can be seen at close hand from the window of a jet plane flying above 25,000 feet (7,600 meters). When viewed from the ground, bands of threadlike cirrus clouds often seem to emerge from a single point on the western horizon and spread across the entire sky. Cirrus clouds are composed almost exclusively of ice crystals. Their fibrous appearance results from the wind "stretching" streamers of falling ice particles into feathery strands called "mares" tails." Snow crystals may fall from thicker, darker cirrus clouds, but they usually evaporate in the drier air below the cloud. 7 Among the several compound cloud types described by Luke Howard are cirrocumulus and cirrostratus clouds. Cirrocumulus clouds appear as small, well-defined white flakes or cotton patches in close horizontal arrangement. Cirrostratus clouds are a thin, white layer resembling a veil. Because of their ice content, cirrostratus clouds are associated with the halos appearing around the sun or moon.