填空题Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile delinquency (crimes committed by young people) focus either on the individual or on society as the major contributing influence. Theories ________on the individual suggest that children engage in criminal behavior ________they were not sufficiently penalized for previous misdeeds or that they have learned criminal behavior through ________with others. Theories focusing on the role of society suggest that children commit crimes in ________ to their failure to rise above their socioeconomic status, ________ as a rejection of middle-class values. Most theories of juvenile delinquency have focused on children from disadvantaged families, ________ the fact that children from wealthy homes also commit crimes. The latter may commit crimes ________ lack of adequate parental control. All theories, however, are tentative and are ________ to criticism. Changes in the social structure may indirecfiy ________ juvenile crime rates. For example, changes in the economy that ________ to fewer job opportunities for youth and rising unemployment ________ make gainful employment increasingly difficult to obtain. The resulting discontent may in ________ lead more youths into criminal behavior. Families have also ________ changes these years. More families consist of one-parent households or two working parents; ________ , children are likely to have less supervision at home ________ was common in the traditional family ________ This lack of parental supervision is thought to be an influence on juvenile crime rates. Other ________ causes of offensive acts include frustration or failure in school, the increased ________ of drugs and alcohol, and the growing ________ of child abuse and child neglect. All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a child committing a criminal act, ________ a direct causal relationship has not yet been established.

填空题{{B}}Directions:{{/B}}In the following article, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41～45, choose the most suitable one from the list A～G to fit into each of the numbered blanks. There are two extra choices which do not fit in any of the gaps. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. Since childhood, most of us have been bombarded with roles—don't be selfish, don't complain, don't be unreasonable, don't interrupt, etc. 41) __________Do you wish you could learn to deal with minor irritations before anger festers into intense resentment and explosive aggression? Assertiveness training can reduce stress by teaching you to stand up for your legitimate rights without bullying or being bullied. Step one is realizing that changes are needed. Then you must take action to make those changes a reality. Assertiveness training might be offered through your employer, your university or a private consultant. It might even be offered through distance learning on the Internet. 42)__________. Such a workshop might include two workshop leaders for up to 18 participants in an all-day, six-hour event or two morning sessions one week apart, with "homework" being assigned between the two sessions. What kind of homework? Practicing what you have learned and describing the experience in a personal diary. 43) __________. Long breaks encourage free talk and generate enthusiasm among participants. It helps to know that others like yourself share your problems. At the beginning of the workshop, you may be asked to describe specific situations that you would like to handle better. During the workshop, you will hear lectures, see vignettes on DVD or video, and receive printed information on how to become more forthright. Role playing is an important element in assertiveness training. The workshop leader will present a scenario submitted by a workshop participant. 44) __________ Research has shown that an American man is much likelier to feel at ease asking for a higher starting salary than an American woman. A woman with the same qualifications being considered for the same position is commonly inclined to fret: "If I ask for a higher salary, maybe they won't hire me, "or" Maybe the company will think I don't have enough experience for such a high salary." 45) __________. The real-life situation can be thought of as a game; once that perception takes root, some of the stress and inhibition disappears. Meanwhile, the already more confident males in the workshop gain a better understanding of how the situation looks and feels for an inhibited job seeker. They acquire a bit of sympathy. And of course women aren't the only people who ever ask for a higher starting salary or a raise; the communication techniques tried out in assertiveness workshops can be used by anyone. A. Since assertiveness training arose in the US. the principles trainers try to instill would need to be adjusted for a non-Western culture. Yet many would doubtless be as much in place in China as they are in North America or Europe. B. But what if those "rules" have made you into a passive, unassertive, accommodating, compliant person when you would really prefer to speak up more about your true feelings and desires? C. The role playing session helps female workshop participants find out how it feels to ask for a higher salary. They see what the possible responses are, and the workshop participants pool their brains and experience to come up with useful tactics. D. A typical example might be a situation from a job interview: the employer is offering a certain salary but the prospective employee thinks it's too low. How to make it clear that you want a higher salary without sacrificing your chances of landing the job? The workshop leader will have small groups work out strategies. probably involving a female job seeker and a male employer. E. If you are highly motivated, you could read and learn about how to become more assertive independently. Probably the best way to build assertiveness is a good assertiveness training workshop. F. For example, North American trainees are urged to focus positively on goals, not g on the other person. You may not like the other person. You may, in fact, mistrust, despise or fear the other person, but he is the fellow you have to negotiate with. G. The workshop should take place in a hospitable atmosphere with plenty of room, a comfortable temperature and light refreshments during breaks.

填空题{{B}}Directions:{{/B}}In the following article, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41～45, choose the most suitable one from the list A～G to fit into each of the numbered blanks. There are two extra chooses which do not fit in any of the gaps. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. Universities the world over love symbols from medieval scholastic garb at degree ceremonies to the owls and scrolls of scholastic badge. But for many universities, especially in Britain and elsewhere in Europe, a more accurate emblem would include slummy buildings, dog eared books and demoralized dons. That's why Britain's government is next week risking defeat in the House of Commons to bring more private money into the country's universities'--and why European and developing countries now busy expanding higher education need to think hard about how much government involvement is good for universities. 41)__________. America's flourishing universities exemplify the former Europe's the latter. Britain's government wants to move towards the American modal. The subject of next week' s rebellion is a bill that would allow English universities Scotland and Wales are different to charge up to 3000 pounds (5460 dollars) in tuition fees instead of the current flat rate 1125. Students will borrow the money through a state run loan scheme and pay it back once they are earning enough. 42)__________. But it reflects an important shift in thinking. First that the new money universities need should come from graduates rather than the general taxpayer. Second and most crucially it abandons the egalitarian assumption that all universities are equally deserving. That is commendable just because a course is cheap does not mean it is worthless and the existence of costly ones is not in itself a sign of iniquitous social division. Yet old thinking has deep roots. Bandying phrases such as "excellence for all" and "education for the many not the few", politicians, especially left wing ones, want to dap the university educated label on ever more people regardless of merit cost or practicality. 43)__________. It humiliates the talented but disadvantaged whose success is then devalued and it infuriates the talented who are not deemed underprivileged enough and who feel their merits ignored and it makes universities do a job they are bound to be bad at. Public funding is addictive and the withdrawal symptoms are painful.44)__________. Inflated tuition fees are a big worry and alumni preference looks unfair. But overall America's system looks sustainable in a way that the Old World's does not. In short the model to strive for is varied institutions charging varied fees. Not all courses need last three years or bring a full honors degree.45)__________. It is better to do some things well rather than everything indifferently. It is because politicians have forgotten that some of the world's oldest universities risk a future that is a lot less glorious than their past. A. Some will be longer and deeper; others shorter and shallower. Some universities may specialize as teaching only institutions like America' s liberal arts colleges. Others may want to concentrate mainly on research. All must have the right to select their intake. B. Universities can indeed give the disadvantaged a leg up—but they will do it much better if the state stands hack. Micromanaging university admissions as the British government has been trying to do on grounds of class with targets quotas fines and strictures risks the same consequences as similar American experiments based on racial preference. C. Alison Wolf a British economist terms this the "two aspirin good five aspirin better" approach to university finance. It is deeply flawed. In reality, there is no proven connection between spending on universities and prosperity, nor can there be. D. But as British dons and politicians straggle with these issues and their European counterparts ponder whether one day they might just have to do something similar, the message for emerging economies like China and India who are investing heavily in their own systems of higher education is clear—avoid a nationalized and uniform system and go for one that is diverse and independent America's universities have their problems. E. It is a very limited start faced with sweeteners for students from poor backgrounds. The best universities worry that the maximum fee should be many times higher. F. Indeed, faced with aging populations Britain and most European countries arguably should be encouraging their young people to start earning earlier in their lives rather than later. G. There are broadly two models for running universities. They can be autonomous institutions mainly dependent on private income such as fees, donations and investments or they can be state financed and as a result, state run.

填空题[A]Thiswork,though,wererelativelysmall-scale.Now,amuchlargerstudyhasfoundthatdiscriminationplaysaroleinthepaygapbetweenmaleandfemalescientistsatBritishuniversities.[B]Besidespay,herstudyalsolookedatthe"glass-ceiling"effect--namelythatatallstagesofawoman'scareersheislesslikelythanhermalecolleaguestobepromoted.Betweenpostdoctoralandlecturerlevel,menaremorelikelytobepromotedthanwomenare,byafactorofbetween1.04and2.45.Suchdifferencesarebiggerathighergrades,withthehardestmoveofallbeingforawoman'tosettleintoaprofessorialchair.[C]Sevenyearsago,agroupoffemalescientistsattheMassachusetts.InstituteofTechnologyproducedapieceofresearchshowingthatseniorwomenprofessorsintheinstitute'sschoolofsciencehadlowersalariesandreceivedfewerresourcesforresearchthantheirmalecounterpartsdid.Discriminationagainstfemalescientistshascroppedup.[D]SaraConnolly,aresearcherattheUniversityofEastAnglia'sschoolofeconomics,hasbeenanalyzingtheresultsofasurveyofover7,000scientistsandshehasjustpresentedherfindingsatthisyear'smeetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceinNorwich.Shefoundthattheaveragepaygapbetweenmaleandfemaleacademicsworkinginscience,engineeringandtechnologyisaround￡1,500($2,850)ayear.[E]Toprovethepointbeyonddoubt,DrConnollyworkedouthowmuchoftheoverallpaydifferentialwasexplainedbydifferencessuchasseniority,experienceandage,andhowmuchwasunexplained,andthereforesuggestiveofdiscrimination.Explicabledifferencesamountedto77%oftheoverallpaygapbetweenthesexes.Thatstillleftasubstantial23%gapinpay,whichDrConnollyattributestodiscrimination.[F]Thatisnot,ofcourse,irrefutableproofofdiscrimination.Analternativehypothesisisthatthecoursesofmen'sandwomen'slivesmeanthegapiscausedbysomethingelse;womentaking"careerbreaks"tohavechildren,forexample,andthusrisingmoreslowlythroughthehierarchy.Unfortunatelyforthatidea,DrConnollyfoundthatmenarealsolikelytoearnmorewithinanygivengradeofthehierarchy.Maleprofessors,forexample,earnover￡4,000ayearmorethanfemaleones.[G]Ofcourse,itmightbethat,ateachgrade,mendomoreworkthanwomen,tomakethemselvesmoreeligibleforpromotion.Butthatexplanation,too,seemstobewrong.Unlikethepreviousstudies,DrConnolly'scomparedtheexperienceofscientistsinuniversitieswiththatofthoseinothersortsoflaboratory.Itturnsoutthatfemaleacademicresearchersfacemorebarrierstopromotion,andhaveawidergapbetweentheirpayandthatoftheirmalecounterparts,thandotheirsistersinindustryorresearchinstitutesindependentofuniversities.Privateenterprise,inotherwords,deliversmoreequalitythanthesupposedlyegalitarianworldofacademiadoes.

填空题Just under a year ago, a sharp drop in equatorial Pacific sea-surface temperature indicated the end of the 1997~1998 E1 Nino. Called by someone "the climate event of the century", it was by several measures the strongest on record. (41)______.This is more than simply an academic question: the 1997~1998 E1 Nino severely disrupted global weather patterns and Pacific marine ecosystems, and by one estimate caused ＄033 billion in damage and cost 23,000 lives worldwide. (42)______.Clearly we have much to learn from this experience. (43)______.Now E1 Nino more generally refers to a warming of the tropical Pacific basin that occurs roughly every three to seven years in association with a weakening of the trade winds. The opposite side of El Nino, La Nina, is characterized by stronger-than-normal trade winds and unusually cold sea-surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific. Both E1 Nino and La Nina are accompanied by swings in atmospheric pressure between the eastern and western Pacific. These swings are known as the Southern Oscillation. These phenomena are collectively referred to as ENSO or E1 Nino/Southern Oscillation. The general mechanisms underlying the ENSO involve large-scale ocean-atmosphere interactions and equatorial ocean dynamics. But each El Nino and La Nina is unique in the combination of its strength, duration and pattern of development. Irregularity in the ENSO cycle can be seen both in the record dating back to the middle of the 19th century, and in other supporting data, such as lake sediments, coral growth rings and tree rings, going back hundreds or even thousands of years. (44)______. Nonetheless, the 1997~1998 E1 Nino was an unusual one. It developed so rapidly that every month between June and December 1997 set a new monthly record high for sea-surface temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific. Anomalies (that is, deviations from normal) in December 1997 were the highest ever recorded along the Equator in the eastern Pacific. Moreover, before 1997~ 1998, the previous record-setting E1 Nino occurred in 1982~1983. (45)______. Several factors may have contributed to the strength of the 1997~1998 E1 Nino. One is chaos, which some theories invoke to account for the irregularity of the ENSO cycle. Nonlinear resonances involving ENSO and the seasonal cycle have received special attention, but other chaotic interactions may affect ENSO as well. In 1997~1998, events possibly acted together to produce an extraordinarily strong E1 Nino simply due to the underlying tendency towards chaos in the elimate system.[A] So in principle, it should not be surprising that an unusually strong E1 Nino occurs ever so often.[B] Identifying why it was so strong challenges our understanding of the physical mechanisms responsible for E1 Nino.[C] From that perspective, the strength of the 1997~1998 E1 Nino may be but one manifestation of a linkage between interannual and decadal climate variations in the Pacific.[D] These two "super E1 Ninos" were separated by only 15 years, compared with a typical 30~40 year gap between such events earlier in the 20th century.[E] E1 Nino, Spanish for "the child" (and specifically the Christ child), is the name Peruvian fisherman gave to coastal sea-temperature warnings that first appeared around Christmas time.[F] There were warnings of a coming E1 Nino before it occurred. But although many computer forecast models predicted that 1997 would be warm in the tropical Pacific up to three seasons in advance, none predicted the rapid development or ultimate intensity of the event before it began.[G] In association with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, sea-surface temperatures have generally been higher in the tropical Pacific from the Mid-1970s. Since then, there have been more E1 Ninos than La Ninas.

填空题C. P. Snow once said: " A sense of the future is behind all good policies. Unless we have it, we can give nothing either wise or decent to the world. " Thinking carefully about an outcome is an intelligent first step in many processes, especially when the stakes are high, possibly even dangerous. Do you have any experience in getting out of hazardous situations? In the most exceptional circumstances, a few good rules of thumb may save you. Here are five things to keep in mind. 41. Stay calm If a catastrophe threatens your life, panic will only make matters worse. Nothing but calmness can help you adequately take stock of the situation and take appropriate measures. 42. Remain confident Desperation can paralyze you or sap your energy, while confidence is the key to saving yourself. 43. Help each other You should organize for mutual assistance in case of an earthquake, flood, fire, etc. People working together can always cope more successfully with any adverse situation. Solidarity means strength; solidarity means victory. 44. Be obedient to superiors The best strategy when facing a catastrophe is to obey commands and keep order. More often than not, leaders are experts, or someone familiar with the situation or with rich experience. Being too individualistic and going your own way will usually make the situation worse for you and others. So, the best thing to do is to listen to authorities and remain orderly. 45. Communicate When in danger it is best to seek help immediately so those with more resources can come to your aid. If you are at risk, use whatever means available as soon as possible to contact others for help, and take efforts to maintain communication once it is established. While every catastrophe is different in its own way, all can be met and hopefully overcome with the above-mentioned pieces of advice. By carefully considering what needs to be done, even under the worst of situations, one can find solutions, or endure until aided by others.[A] A person trapped in ruins in an earthquake, didn't lose hope. The victim overcame his pain and despair, and kept banging out signals on the fallen wall around him for help. Because of his efforts, a rescue team was able to find him and save his life.[B] For example, if numerous people are involved in a dangerous situation, some, out of fear or inclination, may not follow direction or heed sound advice. As a result of the disorder, rescue efforts are hindered, or worse more casualties are incurred.[C] Nine fishermen from Peru were hit by a severe storm, but they didn't panic even though their boat was damaged so badly that they couldn't sail home. They maintained faith that they would surely to be saved, and their belief gave them strength. When there is hope, there is a way! They survived at sea for 40 days before they were finally rescued. Their story is a good sample for future people lost at sea. It is best to remember the proverb: God helps those who help themselves.[D] History shows that when people are in danger mutual assistance promotes confidence, and reassuring others not only helps them, but can calm you as well. Helping others is beneficial, especially in the direst circumstances. During the Sept. 11 attacks in America, people pulled together and supported each other. This not only reduced casualties, but also left a deep impression on people around world. Remember, helping others is helping yourself![E] The Apollo 13 space mission suffered catastrophic mechanical problems en route to the Moon. Its malfunction was caused by an explosion and rupture of oxygen tank No. 2 in the service module. The NASA Mission Control Center immediately issued two orders. The second order was concerning navigation. But, can you guess what the first order was? Unbelievably, the astronauts were told to take two tranquillizer pills each! As a result, calmness helped the astronauts overcome a series of difficulties and return to earth. Calmness can work miracles in times of emergency.[F] The best way to prevent a catastrophe from happening is planning ahead. You should often check your circuits, stoves, electrical appliances and gas pipelines. Before sleeping in a hotel, you should be aware of the nearest exit in case of an emergency. " Preparation avers peril. "

填空题{{B}}Directions:{{/B}}Thefollowingparagraphsaregiveninawrongorder.ForQuestions41-45,youarerequiredtoreorganizetheseparagraphsintoacoherenttextbychoosingfromthelistA-Gtofillineachnumberedbox.ThefirstandthelastparagraphshavebeenplacedforyouinBoxes.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.[A]ThestrainofHIVthatwasdiscoveredinSydneyintriguesscientistsbecauseitcontainsstrikingabnormalitiesinagenethatisbelievedtostimulateviralduplication.Infact,thevirusismissingsomuchofthisparticulargene-knownasnef,fornegativefactor--thatitishardtoimaginehowthegenecouldperformanyusefulfunction.Andsureenough,whiletheSydneyvirusretainstheabilitytoinfectTcells--whitebloodcellsthatarecriticaltotheimmunesystem'sabilitytowardoffinfection--itmakessofewcopiesofitselfthatthemostpowerfulmoleculartoolscanbarelydetectitspresence.[B]Ifthisspeculationprovesright,itwillmarkamilestoneinthebattletocontainthelate-20thcentury'smostterribleepidemic.ForinadditiontoexplainingwhythissmallgroupofpeopleinfectedwithHIVhasnotbecomesick,thediscoveryofaviralstrainthatworkslikeavaccinewouldhavefar-reachingimplications."Whattheseresultssuggest,"saysDr.BarneyGrahamofTennessee'sVanderbiltUniversity,"isthatHIVisvulnerableandthatitispossibletostimulateeffectiveimmunityagainstit."[C]Butassixyearsstretchedto10,thento14,theanxietyofhealthofficialsgavewaytoastonishment.Althoughtwooftherecipientshavediedfromothercauses,notoneoftheman'scontaminatedbloodhascomedownwithAIDS.Moretellingstill,thedonorisalsohealthy.InfacthisimmunesystemremainsasrobustasifhehadnevertangledwithHIVatall.Whatcouldexplainsuchunexpectedgoodfortune?[D]Attheveryleast,thenefgeneoffersanattractivetargetfordrugdevelopers.Ifitsactivitycanbeblocked,suggestsDeacon,researchersmightbeabletobringtheprogressionofdiseaseundercontrol,eveninpeoplewhohavedevelopedfull-blownAIDS.TheneedforbetterAIDS-fightingdrugswasunderscoredlastweekbytheactionsofaU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationadvisorypanel,which,recommendedspeedyapprovaloftwonewAIDSdrugs.AlthoughFDAcommissionerDavidKesslerwasquicktopraisethenewdrugs,neithermedicationcanpreventorcureAIDSonceithastakenhold.Whatscientistsreallywantisavaccinethatcanpreventinfectionaltogether.Andthat'swhatmakestheSydneyvirussopromising--andsocontroversial.[E]AteamofAustralianscientistshasfinallysolvedthemystery.Thevirusthatthedonorcontractedandthenpassedon,theteamreportedlastweekinthejournalScience,containsflawsinitsgeneticscriptthatappeartohaverendereditharmless."Notonlyhavetherecipientsandthedonornotprogressedtodiseasefor15years,"marvelsmolecularbiologistNicholasDeaconofAustralia'sMacfarlaneBurnetCentreforMedicalResearch,"butthepredictionisthattheyneverwill."Deaconspeculatesthatthis"impotent"HIVmayevenbeanaturalinoculantthatprotectsitscarriersagainstmorevirulentstrainsofthevirus.[F]ButfewscientistsareenthusiasticabouttestingthepropositionbyinjectingHIV--howeverweakened--intomillionsofpeoplewhohaveneverbeeninfected.Afterall,theynote,HIVisaretrovirus,aclassofinfectiousagentsknownfortheiralarmingabilitytointegratetheirowngenesintotheDNAofthecellstheyinfect.Thusonceittakeseffect,aretrovirusinfectionispermanent.[G]About15yearsago,awell-meaningmandonatedbloodtotheRedCrossinSydney,Australia,notknowinghehasbeenexposedtoHIV-1,thevirusthatcausesAIDS.Muchlater,publichealthofficialslearnedthatsomeofthepeoplewhogottransfusionscontaininghisbloodhadbecomeinfectedwiththesamevirus;presumablytheywerealmostsuretodie.Order:

填空题41. Two types of stress: There are basically two types of stress placed on human beings--physical and mental. 42. Effects of stress--physical or emotional: Whether physical or emotional in origin, stress causes the body to react in the same way. 43. Guilty--useful, though most harmful: Probably the most harmful of all the stresses is guilt. 44. Instances no need to feel guilty: However, many of us as children learned rules that we no longer need. No one is perfect: Guilt and the worry that often accompanies this major stress are difficult to eradicate, but people subject to excessive guilt feelings should realize, as simple as it sounds, that no one is perfect. People cannot always be cheerful and helpful to every one they meet. Another good lesson is that mistakes should be forgotten, not lingered over and brought out to examine periodically. 45. Life with a little stress--significant: A life without stress, such as retirement with nothing to do, would be boring.[A] Fat adults should no longer feel guilty about leaving a little food on the plate, a successful businessman need not feel guilty about spending a little too much money on a vacation, nor should he feel guilty that he can combine a business trip to the West Coast with some swimming and golf at an ocean resort. But many people do feel guilty over such apparently innocent actions. Excessive guilt can sour all of life and make life not worth living; it can also cause self-hatred as well as other fears and anxieties that cause all life's successes to be bittersweet, at best.[B] Stress from physical activity, if not carried too far, is actually beneficial. Exercise relaxes you and may help forget about mental and emotional stress. But mental stress is almost always bad for you. If mental stress is unrelieved, it can actually cause diseases such as ulcers, migraine headaches, heart problems, or mental illness.[C] Just as we need a little guilt--to keep us correct and a little worry--to make us plan ahead--we need a little stress to stay interested in life. But when stress begins to bother you, you might as well change your routine. Take your mind off your worries with some physical activity; you may discover a solution you have overlooked before.[D] Stress is a natural part of everyday life and there is no way to avoid it. In fact, it is not the bad thing it is often supposed to be. A certain amount of stress is vital to provide motivation and give purpose to life. It is only when the stress gets out of control that it can lead to poor performance and ill health.[E] Some people are not afraid of stress, and such characters are obviously prime material for managerial responsibilities, others lose heart at the first signs of unusual difficulties.[F] In the first stage, your body prepares to meet the stress. The heartbeat and respiration rates increase, and the pupils of the eyes dilate; the blood sugar level increases, and the rate of perspiration speeds up, while digestion slows down as blood and muscular activity is diverted elsewhere. In the second stage, your body returns to normal and repairs any damage caused by the stressful situation. However, if stress continues, the body cannot repair itself, and the final stage, exhaustion, then begins. If this stage continues, if for example you are frustrated by your work and continue to be frustrated for a long time, physical or emotional damage will occur. These stages of stress reaction are always the same, whether the stress is caused by a cross-country run, a first date, buying a house, or narrowly missing an automobile accident.[G] This common emotion is useful to have when it helps us to realize that we have, in fact, committed some error, violated our own rules or social rules. If we did not feel guilty, we would never do anything except the things that brought us immediate pleasure-- we'd never obey the law, work, exercise, or even study in school, unless we wanted to do so in the first place. As a person's conscience develops, guilt feelings become inevitable; guilt is the sorrow we experience when we know we have done something incorrect.

填空题 [A] What route does HIV take after it enters the body to destroy the immune system?[B] How and when did the long-standing belief concerning AIDS and HIV crop up?[C] What is the most effective anti-HIV therapy?[D] How does HIV subvert the immune system?[E] In the absence of a vaccine, how can HIV be stopped?[F] Why does AIDS predispose infected persons to certain types of cancer and infections? In the 20 years since the first cases of AIDS were detected, scientists say they have learned more about this viral disease than any other. Yet Peter Piot, who directs the United Nations AIDS program, and Stefano Vella of Rome, president of the International AIDS Society, and other experts say reviewing unanswered questions could prove useful as a measure of progress for AIDS and other diseases. Among the important broader scientific questions that remain:41．_____________. A long-standing belief is that cancer cells constantly develop and are held in check by a healthy immune system. But AIDS has challenged that belief. People with AIDS are much more prone to certain cancers like non-Hodgkins lymphomas and Kaposi's sarcoms, but not to breast, colon and lung, the most common cancers in the United States. This pattern suggests that an impaired immune system, at least the type that occurs in AIDS, does not allow common cancers to develop.42．_______________. When HIV is transmitted sexually, the virus must cross a tissue barrier to enter the body. How that happens is still unclear. The virus might invade directly or be carried by a series of different kinds of cells. Eventually HIV travels through lymph vessels to lymph nodes and the rest of the lymph system. But what is not known is how the virus proceeds to destroy the body's CD-4 cells that are needed to combat invading infectious agents.43．_______________. Although HIV kills the immune ceils sent to kill the virus, there is widespread variation in the rate at which HIV infected people become ill with AIDS. So scientists ask: Can the elements of the immune system responsible for that variability be identified? If so, can they be used to stop progression to AIDS in infected individuals and possibly prevent infection in the first place?44．_______________. In theory, early treatment should offer the best chance of preserving immune function. But the new drugs do not completely eliminate HIV from the body so the medicines, which can have dangerous side effects, will have to be taken for a lifetime and perhaps changed to combat resistance. The new policy is expected to recommend that treatment be deferred until there are signs the immune system is weakening.{{B}} Is a vaccine possible?{{/B}} There is little question that an effective vaccine is crucial to controlling the epidemic. Yet only one has reached the stage of full testing, and there is wide controversy over the degree of protection it will provide. HIV strains that are transmitted in various areas of the world differ genetically. It is not known whether a vaccine derived from one type of HIV will confer protection against other types.45．_______________. Without more incisive, focused behavioral research, prevention messages alone will not put an end to the global epidemic.

填空题{{B}}Directions:{{/B}} You are going to read a list of headings and a text about the development of maritime laws. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A-F for each numbered paragraph (41-45). The first and last paragraphs of the text are not numbered. There is one extra heading which you do not need to use. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. [A] Fist convention of Comite Maritime International[B] The convention having been revised three times[C] Why is unification of maritime law necessary?[D] The convention with the most signature states.[E] Incompatible time scale[F] The salvage convention According to Constitution: "The Comite Maritime International (CMI) is a non-governmental international organization, the object of which is to contribute by all appropriate means and activities to the unification of maritime law in all its aspects. To this end it shall promote the establishment of national associations of maritime law and shall co-operate with other international organizations. "The CMI has been doing just that since 1897.41______ In an address to the University of Turin in 1860, the Jurist Mancini said: "The sea with its winds, its storms and its dangers never changes and this demands a necessary uniformity of juridical regime." In other words, those involved in the world of maritime trade need to know that wherever they trade the applicable law will, by and large, be the same. Traditionally, uniformity is achieved by means of international conventions or other forms of agreement negotiated between governments and enforced domestically by those same governments.42______ It is tempting to measure the success of a convention on a strictly numerical basis. If that is the proper criterion of success, one could say that one of the most successful conventions ever produced was the very first CMI convention--the Collision Convention of 1910. The terms of this convention were agreed on September 23, 1910 and the convention entered into force less than three years later, on March 1, 1913.43______ Almost as successful, in numerical terms, is a convention of similar vintage, namely the Salvage Convention of 1910. Less than three years elapsed between agreement of the text at the Brussels Diplomatic Conference and entry into force on March 1, 1913. we are, quite properly, starting to see a number of denunciations of this convention, as countries adopt the new salvage Convention of 1989. It is worth recording that the Salvage Convention of 1989, designed to replace the 1910 Convention, did not enter into force until July 1996, more than seven years after agreement. The latest information available is that forty States have now ratified or acceded to the 1989 convention.44______ The text of the first Limitation Convention was agreed at the Brussels Diplomatic Conference in August 1924, but did not enter into force until 1931-seven years after the text had been agreed. This convention was not widely supported, and eventually attracted only fifteen ratifications or accessions. The CMI had a second go at limitation with its 1957 Convention, the text of which was agreed in October of that year. It entered into force in May 1968 and has been ratified or acceded to by fifty-one states, though of course a number have subsequently denounced this convention in order to embrace the third CMI Limitation Convention, that of 1976. At the latest count the 76 Convention has been ratified or acceded to by thirtyseven states. The fourth instrument on limitation, namely the 1996 Protocol, has not yet come into force, despite the passage of six years since the Diplomatic Conference at Which the text of the was agreed.45______ By almost any standard of measurement, the most successful maritime law convention of all time: the Civil Liability Convention of 1969. The text of that convention ( to which the CMI contributed both in background research and drafting) was agreed at a Diplomatic Conference in 1969 and it entered into force six years later, in June 1975. The convention has, at various stages, been acceded to or ratified by 103 states (with two additional "provisional" ratifications). If we add to this the various states and dependencies that come in under the UK umbrella, we realize that we are looking at a hugely successful convention. Conventions and other unifying instruments are born in adversity. An area of law may come under review because one or two' states have been confronted by a maritime legal problem that has affected them directly. Those sponsoring states may well spend some time reviewing the problem and producing the first draft of an instrument. Eventually, this draft may be offered to the International Maritime Organisation' s ( IMO ) Legal Committee for inclusion in its work program. Over ensuing years (the Legal Committee meeting every sic months or so), issues presented by the draft will be debated, new issues will be raised, and the instrument will be endlessly re-drafted. At some stage, the view will be taken that the instrument is sufficiently mature to warrant a Diplomatic Conference at which the text will be finalized. If the instrument is approved at the Diplomatic Conference, it will sit for twelve monthsawaiting signature and then be open to ratification and accession. The instrument will contain an entry into force requirement, which will need to be satisfied.

填空题Industrial safety does not just happen

填空题All big ideas start life on the fringes of debate. Very often it takes a shocking event to move them into the mainstream. Unti1 last year climate change was mainly the interest of scientists and green lobbyists. But since Hurricane Katrina, something seems to have changed, particularly in America. Nobody knows whether the hurricane really had anything to do with the earth warming. But for the first time less green voters and big business had a clearer idea about the "extreme weather events" whose increasing frequency scientists had been talking about. There are plenty of anecdotal signs of change: Britain's pro-business Conservatives have turned green; A1 Gore is back in fashion in America; hybrid cars no longer get stared at. (41)______. So far the political rows about global warming have centred on two polluters, smoggy factories and dirty cars. (42)______. In some ways, the airlines are an odd target for greens. They produce only around 3% of the world's man-made carbon emissions. (43)______. By shipping hordes of ordinary people around the globe for not very much money, they have improved the lives of millions. (44)______. Air transport will soon be central, not marginal, to the emissions issue. What, if anything, should be done? As usual, there are dangers on both sides. Excessive regulation would unnecessarily restrict individual choice and restrain an industry that makes both rich and poor countries better off. On the other hand, airlines no less than any other industry must pay for pollution. (45)______. And, although other forms of transport cannot easily replace flying, demand for many flights is sensitive to price. A quarter of flying is business-related; many of those journeys are essential, but others are scarcely more important than a telephone call or video-conference. However, addressing individuals' consciences won't go that far. Air pollution is a collective problem, which in this case requires a change in policy. As it stands, the market is in favour of air travel; the aim should be to make it more balanced. Two approaches are on offer. Some think the best way to limit emissions is to tax them; others argue for a system that sets a cap on pollution, and let polluters trade the right to emit.[A] But there is no sign of governments embracing that idea. Given that it is the world's first serious attempt to cut emissions internationally, that is not surprising. The world can learn from its imperfections, and design a better scheme for airlines.[B] Now a new front is being opened up—in the skies. Next month the European Parliament will vote on whether to extend its emissions-trading system to airlines. If it decides in favour, the whole industry will feel the impact, for it will affect not just European airlines but all those that fly into and out of the EU. But whatever happens in the EU, it seems that the airlines are bound to face demands that they should pay for their emissions.[C] Slowly, businessmen and politicians are coming to agree with scientists. If this generation does not tackle climate change, its descendants will not think much of it. That means raising costs for all sources of pollution. Even those inexpensive weekend breaks will be cancelled.[D] As the debate grows, some flyers may reconsider their ways. Put frankly, air travel makes a mockery of many people's attempts to live a green life. Somebody who wants to reduce his "carbon footprint" can bicycle to work, never buy sprays and turn off his air-conditioner—and still blow away all this virtue on a couple of long flights.[E] Companies are beginning to take actions and encouraging governments to do the same. Europe already has an emissions-trading system (ETS) for its five dirtiest industries. In America, although the Bush administration still resists federal legislation, more and more states do not.[F] Yet in other ways, airlines are a fine target. They pay no tax on fuel for international flights, and therefore escape the "polluter pays" principle. Their emissions are especially damaging, too, And the industry's energy consumption has been growing faster than that of other polluting industries.[G] Surface transport, by contrast, produces 22%. Europe's merchant ships spew out around a third more carbon than aircraft do, and nobody is going after them. And unlike cars— potent symbols of individualism (and, some would say, individual selfishness) — airlines are public transport, jamming in as many people as they can into each plane.

填空题[A]Forexample,theUnitedStatesisamajorconsumerofcoffee,yetitdoesnothavetheclimatetogrowanyofitsown.Consequently,theUnitedStatesmustimportcoffeefromcountries(suchasBrazil,ColombiaandGuatemala)thatgrowcoffeeefficiently.Ontheotherhand,theUnitedStateshaslargeindustrialplantscapableofproducingavarietyofgoods,suchaschemicalsandairplanes,whichcanbesoldtonationsthatneedthem.Ifnationstradeditemforitem,suchasoneautomobilefor10,000bagsofcoffee,foreigntradewouldbeextremelycumbersomeandrestrictive.Soinsteadofbarter,whichisthetradeofgoodswithoutanexchangeofmoney,theUnitedStatesreceivesmoneyinpaymentforwhatitsells.ItpaysforBraziliancoffeewithdollars,whichBrazilcanthenusetobuywoolfromAustralia,whichinturncanbuytextilesfromGreatBritain,whichcanthenbuytobaccofromtheUnitedStates.[B]Foreigntradealsooccursbecauseacountryoftendoesnothaveenoughofaparticularitemtomeetitsneeds.AlthoughtheUnitedStatesisamajorproducerofsugar,itconsumesmorethanitcanproduceinternallyandthusmustimportsugar.[C]Foreigntrade,theexchangeofgoodsbetweennations,takesplaceformanyreasons.Thefirst,asmentionedaboveisthatnonationhasallofthecommoditiesthatitneeds.Rawmaterialsarescatteredaroundtheworld.LargedepositsofcopperareminedinPeruandZaire,diamondsareminedinSouthAfricaandpetroleumisrecoveredintheMiddleEast.Countriesthatdonothavetheseresourceswithintheirownboundariesmustbuyfromcountriesthatexportthem.[D]Intoday'scomplexeconomicworld,neitherindividualsnornationsareself-suffi-cient.Nationshaveutilizeddifferenteconomicresources;peoplehavedevelopeddifferentskills.Thisisthefoundationofworldtradeandeconomicactivity.Asaresultofthistradeandactivity,internationalfinanceandbankinghaveevolved.[E]Finally,foreigntradetakesplacebecauseofinnovationorstyle.EventhoughtheUnitedStatesproducesmoreautomobilesthananyothercountry,itstillimportslargenumbersofautosfromGermany,JapanandSweden,primarilybecausethereisamarketforthemintheUnitedStates.[F]Formostnations,exportsandimportsarethemostimportantinternationalactivity.Whennationsexportmorethantheyimport,theyaresaidtohaveafavorablebalanceoftrade.Whentheyimportmorethantheyexport,anunfavorablebalanceoftradeexists.Nationstrytomaintainafavorablebalanceoftrade,whichassuresthemofthemeanstobuynecessaryimports.[G]Third,onenationcansellsomeitemsatalowercostthanothercountries.Japanhasbeenabletoexportlargequantitiesofradiosandtelevisionsetsbecauseitcanproducethemmoreefficientlythanothercountries.ItischeaperfortheUnitedStatestobuythesefromJapanthantoproducethemdomestically.Accordingtoeconomictheory,Japanshouldproduceandexportthoseitemsfromwhichitderivesacomparativeadvantage.Itshouldalsobuyandimportwhatitneedsfromthosecountriesthathaveacomparativeadvantageinthedesireditems.Order: