California Gives Green Light to Space Solar Power Energy beamed down from space is one step closer to reality, now that California has given the green light to an agreement that would see the Pacific Gas and Electric Company buy 200 megawatt(兆瓦)of power beamed down from solar-power satellites beginning in 2016. But some major challenges will have to be overcome if the technology is to be used widely. A start-up company called Solaren is designing the satellites, which it says will use radio waves to beam energy down to a receiving station on Earth. The attraction of collecting solar power in space is the almost uninterrupted sunshine available in eosynchronous(与地球同步的)orbit. Earth-based solar cells, by contrast, can only collect sun light during daytime and when skies are clear. But space-based solar power must grapple(努力克服)with the high cost per kilogram of launching things into space, says Richard Schwartz of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. "If you're talking about it being economically viable or power of the Earth, it's a tough go. " he says. Cal Boerman, Solaren's director of energy services, says the company designed its satellites with a view to keeping launch costs down. "We knew we had to come up with a different, revolutionary design," he says. A patent the company has won describes ways to reduce the systems weight, including using inflatable minors to focus sunlight on solar cells, so a smaller number can collect the same amount of energy. But using minors introduces other challenges, including keeping the solar cells from overheating, says Schwartz. "You have to take care of heat dissipation(散发)because you're now concentrating a lot of energy in one place," he says. According to the company's patent, Solaren's solar cells will be connected to radiators to help keep them cool. Though Boerman says the company believes it can make space-based solar power work, it is not expecting to crowd out other forms of renewable energy. Laws in California and other states require increasing use of renewable energy in coming years, he points out. "To meet those needs, we're going to need all types of renewable energy sources," he says.(2010年)

Why Would They Falsely Confess? Why on earth would an innocent person falsely confess to committing a crime? To most people, it just doesn't seem logical. But it is logical, say experts. If you understand what can happen in a police interrogation(审讯)room. Under the right conditions, people's minds are susceptible(易受影响的)to influence, and the pressure put on suspects during police questioning is enormous. 【B1】______"The pressure is important to understand, because otherwise it's impossible to understand why someone would say he did something he didn't do. The answer is: to put all end to an uncomfortable situation that will continue until he does confess. " Developmental psychologist Mary Redlich recently conducted a laboratory study to determine how likely people are to confess to things they didn't do. 【B2】______The researchers then intentionally crashed the computers and accused the participants of hitting "alt" key to see if they would sign a statement falsely taking responsibility. Redlich's findings clearly demonstrate how easy it can be to get people to falsely confess; 59 percent of the young adults in the experiment immediately confessed. 【B3】______Of the 15-to 16-year-olds, 72 percent signed confessions, as 13-year-olds. "There's no question that young people are more at risk," says Saul Kassin, a psychology professor at Williams College, who has done similar studies with similar studies. 【B4】______ Both Kassin and Redlich note that the entire "interrogation" in their experiments consisted of a simple accusation—not hours of aggressive questioning—and still, most participants falsely confessed. 【B5】______"In some ways," says Kassin, "false confession becomes a rational decision. "A. In her experiment, participants were seated at computers and told not to hit the alt key, because doing so would crash the systems.B. Because of the stress of a police interrogation, they conclude, suspects can become convinced that falsely confessing is the easiest way out of a bad situation.C. "It's a little like somebody's working on them with a dental(牙齿)drill," .says Franklin Zimring, a law professor at the University of California at Berkeley.D. "But the baseline is that adults are highly vulnerable too. "E. The court found him innocent and he was released.F. Redlich also found that the younger the participant, the more likely a false confession.

The Mysteries of Nazca In the desert of Peru, 300 kilometers from Lima, one of the most unusual artworks in the world has mystified people for decades. 【B1】______But from high above, these marks are huge images of birds, fish, seashells, all beautifully carved into the earth. The Nazca lines are so difficult to see from the ground that they weren't discovered until the 1930s, when pilots spotted them while flying over the area. In all, there are about 70 different human and animal figures on the plain, along with 900 triangles, circles, and lines. Researchers have figured out that the lines are at least 1,500 years old, but their purpose is still a mystery. 【B2】______However, it would probably be very tricky to land a spaceship in the middle of pictures of dogs and monkeys. In the 1940s, an American explorer named Paul Kosok suggested that the drawings are a chronicle of the movement of the stars and planets. 【B3】______Later, an astronomer tested his theory with a computer, but he couldn't find any relation between the lines and movements in space. Another explanation is that the lines may have been made for religious reasons. British researcher Tony Morrison investigated the customs of people in the Andes Mountain and learned that they sometimes pray by the side of the road. It's possible that in the past, the lines of Nazca were created for a similar purpose. 【B4】______But the local people have never constructed anything this big. Recently, two other scientists, David Johnson and Steve Mabee, have speculated that lines could have been related to water. Nazca is one of the driest places in the world and receives only 2cm of rain every year. While Johnson was searching for ancient water sources in the area, he noticed that some waterways built by ancient people were connected with the lines. Johnson believes that the Nazca lines are a giant map of the underground water in the area. 【B5】______(2012 年)A. Other scientists are now searching for evidence to prove this.B. A Swiss writer named Erich Von Daniken wrote that the Nazca lines were designed as a landing place for UFOs.C. Scholars differ in interpreting the purpose of the designs.D. The largest pictures may have been the sites for special ceremonies.E. Seen from the ground, it looks like lines scratched into the earth.F. He called Nazca "the largest astronomy book in the world".

Earth Rocks on Most of the time, the ground feels solid beneath our feet. That's comforting. But it's also misleading because there's actually a lot going on underground. Masses of land(called plates)slip, slide, and bump against each other, slowly changing the shape of continents and oceans over millions and billions of years. Scientists know that Earth formed about 4. 5 billion years ago. They also know that our planet was hot at first. As it cooled, its outermost layer, called the crust(地壳), eventually formed moving plates. Exactly when this shift happened, however, is an open question. Now, an international group of researchers has an answer. They've found new evidence suggesting that Earth's crust started shifting at least 3. 8 billion years ago. The new estimate is 1.3 billion years earlier than previous ones. Not long before 3. 8 billion years ago, lots of asteroids(小行星)were hitting Earth, keeping its crust in a hot, melted state. After the hard crust formed, much of it sank at various times into the planet's hot insides. There, it melted before returning to the surface. In some places, however, the crust never sank. One of the oldest such places is in Greenland, in an area called the Isua supracrustal(上地壳)belt. The rocky crust there is between 3. 7 and 3. 8 billion years old. The belt was once part of the seafloor, but now it is exposed to air. The researchers recently took a close look at the Isua supracrustal belt. They noticed long, parallel cracks in the rock that have been filled in with a type of volcanic rock. To explain this structure, the scientists propose that tension in the crust caused the seafloor to crack open long ago. Hot, liquid rock, called magma(岩浆), flowed up slowly from deep inside Earth to fill the cracks. Finally, the whole area cooled, forming what we see today. That explanation, plus chemical clues inside the rock, suggests that the Isua supracrustal belt was once part of a plate under the ocean, beginning around 3. 8 billion years ago.(2011年)

Toads Are Arthritis and in Pain Arthritis is an illness that can cause pain and swelling in your bones. Toads, a big problem in the north of Australia, are suffering from painful arthritis in their legs and backbone, a new study has shown. The toads that jump the fastest are more likely to be larger and to have longer legs. 【B1】______ The large yellow toads, native to South and Central America, were introduced into the north-eastern Australian state of Queensland in 1935 in an attempt to stop beetles and other insects from destroying sugarcane crops. Now up to 200 million of the poisonous toads exist in the country, and they are rapidly spreading through the state of Northern Territory at a rate of up to 60km a year. The toads can now be found across more than one million square kilometers. 【B2】______A Venezuelan poison virus was tried in the 1990s but had to be abandoned after it was found to also kill native frog species. The toads have severely affected ecosystems in Australia. Animals, and sometimes pets, that eat the toads die immediately from their poison, and the toads themselves eat anything they can fit inside their mouth. 【B3】______ A co-author of the new study, Rick Shine, a professor at the University of Sydney, says that little attention has been given to the problems that toads face. Rick and his colleagues studied nearly 500 toads from Queensland and the Northern Territory and found that those in the latter state were very different. They were active, sprinting down roads and breeding quickly. According to the results of the study, the fastest toads travel nearly one kilometer a night. 【B4】______But speed and strength come at a price—arthritis of the legs and backbone due to constant pressure placed on them. In laboratory tests, the researchers found that after about 15 minutes of hopping, arthritic toads would travel less distance with each hop. 【B5】______These toads are so programmed to move, apparently, that even when in pain the toads travelled as fast and as far as the healthy ones, continuing their relentless march across the landscape.(2013年)A. Toads with longer legs move faster and travel longer distances while the others are being left behind.B. Toads are not built to be road runners—they are built to sit around ponds and wet areas.C. But arthritis didn't slow down toads outside the laboratory the research found.D. But this advantage also has a big drawback—up to 10% of the biggest toads suffer from arthritis.E. The task now facing the country is how to remove the toads.F. Furthermore, they soon take over the natural habitats of Australia's native species.

Europa's Watery Underworld Europa, one of Jupiter's 63 known moons, looks bright and icy on the surface. But appearances can be deceiving: Miles within its cracked, frigid shell, Europa probably hides giant pools of liquid water. Where scientists find liquid water, they hope to find life as well. Since we can't go diving into Europa's depths just yet, scientists instead have to investigate the moon's surface for clues to what lies beneath. In a new study, scientists investigated one group of strange ice patterns on Europa and concluded that the formations mark the top of an underground pool that holds as much water as the U. S. Great Lakes. Pictures of Europa, which is slightly smaller than Earth's moon, clearly show a tangled, icy mishmash of lines and cracks known as "chaos terrains. " These chaotic places cover more than half of Europa. For more than 10 years, scientists have wondered what causes the formations. The new study suggests that they arise from the mixing of vast underground stores of liquid water with icy material near the surface. For scientists who suspect that Europa also may be hiding life beneath its icy surface, the news about the new lake is exciting. "It would be great if these lakes harbored life," Britney Schmidt, a planetary scientist who worked on the study, told Science News. "But even if they didn't, they say that Europa is doing something interesting and active right now. " Schmidt, a scientist at the University of Texas at Austin, and her colleagues wanted to know how chaos terrains form. Since they couldn't rocket to Europa to see for themselves, they searched for similar formations here on Earth. They studied collapsed ice shelves in Antarctica and icy caps on volcanoes in Iceland. Those features on Earth formed when liquid water mixed with ice. The scientists now suspect something similar might be happening on Europa: that as water and ice of different temperatures mingle and shift, the surface fractures. This would explain the jumbled ice sculptures. "Fracturing catastrophically disrupts the ice in the same way that it causes ice shelves to collapse on Earth," Schmidt told Science News. She and her team found that the process could be causing chaos terrains to form quickly on Europa. The new study suggests that on this moon, elements such as oxygen from the surface blend with the deep bodies of water. That mixture may create an environment that supports life.(2012年)

Why Do People Shrink? Did you ever see the movie Honey, I Shrunk the Kids'? It's about a wacky dad(who's also a scientist)who accidentally shrinks his kids with his homemade miniaturizing invention. Oops! 【B1】______ For older people, shrinking isn't that dramatic or sudden at all. It takes place over years and may add up to only one inch or so off of their adult height(maybe a little more, maybe less), and this kind of shrinking can't be magically reversed, although there are things that can be done to stop it or slow it down. 【B2】______ There are a few reasons. As people get older, they generally lose some muscle and fat from their bodies as part of the natural aging process. Gravity(the force that keeps your feet on the ground)takes hold, and the bones in the spine, called vertebrae, may break down or degenerate, and start to collapse into one another. 【B3】______But perhaps the most common reason why some older people shrink is because of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis occurs when too much spongy bone tissue(which is found inside of most bones)is broken down and not enough new bone material is made. 【B4】______Bones become smaller and weaker and can easily break if someone with osteoporosis is injured. Older people- especially women, who generally have smaller and lighter bones to begin with— are more likely to develop osteoporosis. As years go by, a person with osteoporosis shrinks a little bit. Did you know that every day you do a shrinking act? You aren't as tall at the end of the day as you are at the beginning. That's because as the day goes on, water in the disks of the spine gets compressed(squeezed)due to gravity, making you just a tiny bit shorter. Don't worry, though. 【B5】______A. They end up pressing closer together, which makes a person lose a little height and become shorter.B. Once you get a good night's rest, your body recovers, and the next morning, you're standing tall again.C. Over time, bone is said to be lost because it's not being replaced.D. Luckily, there are things that people can do to prevent shrinking.E. The kids spend the rest of the movie as tiny people who are barely visible while trying to get back to their normal size.F. But why does shrinking happen at all?

A Dolphin and an Astronomer One day in 1963, a dolphin named Elvar and a famous astronomer, Carl Sagan, were playing a little game. The astronomer was visiting an institute which was looking into the way dolphins communicate with each other. Sagan was standing on the edge of one of the tanks where several of these friendly, highly intelligent creatures were kept. Elvar had just swum up alongside him and had turned on his back. The dolphin wanted Sagan to scratch his stomach again, as the astronomer had done twice before. Elvar looked up at Sagan, waiting. Then, after a minute or so, the dolphin leapt up through the water and made a sound just like the word "more". The astonished astronomer went to the director of the institute and told him about the incident. "Oh, yes. That's one of the words he knows," the director said, showing no surprise at all. Dolphins have bigger brain in proportion to their body size than humans have, and it has been known for a long time that they can make a number of sounds. What is more, these sounds seem to have different functions, such as warning each other of danger. Sound travels much faster and much further in water than it does in air. That is why the parts of the brain that deal with sound are much better developed in dolphin than in humans. But can it be said that dolphins have a "language", in the real sense of the word? Scientists don't agree on this. A language is not just a collection of sounds, or even words. A language has a structure and what we call a grammar. The structure and grammar of a language help to give it meaning. For example, the two questions "Who loves Mary?" and "Who does Mary love?" mean very different things. If you stop to think about it, you will see that this difference doesn't come from the words in the question but from the difference in structure. That is why the question "Can dolphins speak?" can't be answered until we find out if dolphins not only make sounds but also arrange them in a grammatical order which affects their meaning.(2003年)

On the Trial of the Honey Badger On a recent field trip to the Kalahari Desert, a team of researchers learnt a lot more about honey badgers. The team employed a local wildlife expert, Kitso Khama, to help them locate and follow the badgers across the desert. Their main aim was to study the badgers' movements and behavior as discreetly as possible without frightening them away or causing them to change their natural behavior. They also planned to trap a few and study them close up before releasing them. In view of the animal's reputation, this was something that even Khama was reluctant to do. "The problem with honey badgers is they are naturally curious animals, especially when they see something new. " he says. "That, combined with their unpredictable nature, can be a dangerous mixture. If they sense you have food, for example, they won't be shy about coming right up to you for something to eat. They're actually quite sociable creatures around humans, but as soon as they feel they might be in danger, they can become extremely vicious. Fortunately this is rare, but it does happen. " The research confirmed many things that were already known. As expected, honey badgers ate any creatures they could catch and kill. Even poisonous snakes, feared and avoided by most other animals, were not safe from them. The researchers were surprised, however, by the animal's fondness for local melons, probably because of their high water content. Previously researchers thought that the animal got all of its liquid requirements from its prey. The team also learnt that, contrary to previous research findings, the badgers occasionally formed loose family groups. They were also able to confirm certain results from previous research, including the fact that female badgers never socialised with each other. Following some of the male badgers was a challenge, since they can cover large distances in a short space of time. Some hunting territories cover more than 500 square kilometers. Although they seem happy to share these territories with other males, there are occasional fights over an important food source, and male badgers can be as aggressive towards each other as they are towards other species. As the badgers became accustomed to the presence of people, it gave the team the chance to get up close to them without being the subject of the animals' curiosity—or their sudden aggression. The badgers' eating patterns, which had been disrupted, returned to normal. It also allowed the team to observe more closely some of the other creatures that form working associations with the honey badger, as these seemed to adopt badgers' relaxed attitude when near humans.(2013 年)

What's Lacking in "Sicko"? When it comes to economic decisions, there are always trade-offs. Gain one thing and you lose something else. 【B1】______ The central argument of Michael Moore's movie "Sicko" that the cure to the nation's health care problems is a single-payer system—is hardly novel and is certainly worth consideration, whether or not you agree with it. But in comparing the American system with single-payer plans of other countries—Britain, France, Canada and Cuba— Mr. Moore left out the trade-offs, characterizing those countries as health care paradises. 【B2】______ Kurt Loder, the film critic who is best known as the anchor(主持人)of "MTV News", wrote a critique(批评)of the film for MTV's website. "Sicko," he said, "does a real service" in portraying(描绘)victims of American insurance companies—like the people who died because their only treatmen options were considered "experimental" and therefore not covered. 【B3】______ When "governments attempt to regulate the balance between a limited supply of health care and an unlimited demand for it, they're inevitably forced to ration treatment," Mr. Loder asserted. 【B4】______Mr. Loder cited the short film "Dead Meat", which presents anecdotes(轶事)of failure in the Canadian single-payer system. In its one-sidedness, "Dead Meat" might have made for a nice double feature with "Sicko" and left movie-goers with a more complete understanding of the complications of deciding on a health care system. 【B5】______ This all makes an otherwise "emotionally compelling film not necessarily an intellectually satisfying one," wrote Darren Barefoot, a Canadian blogger(博客作者).(2008年)A. Mr. Moore also decided to ignore problems in other countries, like France's high taxes and Britain's cash-short hospitals.B. But the film as a whole, he concluded, is "breathtakingly meretricious(似是而非的)," in large part because of its characterizations of other countries' health care systems.C. The problems have been noticed—and criticism is coming not just from Mr. Moore's detractors(诋毁者).D. He ticked off a number of negative statistics to counter the positive ones offered by Mr. Moore.E. Health care is the prevention, treatment, and management of illness.F. This is particularly true in health care, a market in which scarce(稀罕的)goods are ridiculously expensive, but needed by everybody.

阅读理解The Asian Flu Virus In 1957, a doctor in Singapore noticed that hospitals were treating an unusual number of influenza-like cases. Influenza is sometimes called "flu" or as "bad cold". He took specimens from the throats of patients in his hospital and was able to find the virus of this influenza. There are three main types of the influenza virus. The most important of these are types A and B, each of them having several sub-groups. With the instruments at the hospital the doctor recognized that the outbreak was due to a virus group A, but he did not know the sub-group. He reported the outbreak to the World Health Organization in Geneva. W. H. 0. published the important news alongside reports of a similar outbreak in Hong Kong, where about 15%-20% of the population had become ill. As soon as the London doctors received the package of throat samples, they began the standard tests. They found that by reproducing itself at a very high speed, the virus had multiplied more than a million times within two days. Continuing their careful tests, the doctors checked the effect of drugs used against all the known sub-groups of type A virus on this virus. None of them gave any protection. This then, was something new: a new influenza virus against which the people of the world had no ready help whatsoever. Having isolated the virus they were working with, the two doctors now conducted tests on some specially selected animals, which contract influenza in the same way as human beings do. In a short time the usual signs of the disease appeared. These experiments revealed that the new virus spread easily, but that it was not a killer. Scientists, like general public, called it simply "Asian" flu.

阅读理解Upon learning that he would leave her, she was

阅读理解Male and Female pilots cause accidents differently Male pilots flying general aviation(private)aircraft in the United States are more likely to crash due to inattention or flawed decision, making, while female pilots are more likely to crash from mishandling the aircraft. These are the results of a study by researchers at the Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health. The study identifies the differences between male and female pilots in terms of circumstances of the crash and the type of pilots error involved. "Crashes of general aviation aircraft account for 85 percent of all aviation deaths in the United States. The crash rate for male pilots, as for motor vehicle drivers, exceeds that of crashes of female pilots," explains Susan P. Baker, MPH, professor of health policy and management at the Bloomberg School of Public Health. "Because pilot youth and inexperience are established, contributors to aviation crashes, we focused on only mature pilots, to determine the gender differences in the reasons for the crash." The researchers extracted data for this study from a large research project on pilot aging and flight safety. The data were gathered from general aviation crashes of airplanes and helicopters between 1983 and 1997, involving 144 female pilots and 267 male pilots aged 40-63. Female pilots were matched with male pilots in a 1:2 ratio, by age, classes of medical and pilot certificates, state or area of crash, and year of crash. Then the circumstances of the crashes and the pilot error involved were categorized and coded without knowledge of pilot gender. The researchers found that loss of control on landing or takeoff was the most common circumstance for both sexes, leading to 59 percent of female pilots’ crashes and 36 percent of males''. Experiencing mechanical failure, running out of fuel, and landing the plane with the landing gear up were among the factors more likely with males, while stalling was more likely with females. The majority of the crashes — 95 percent for females and 88 percent for males — involved at least one type of pilot error. Mishandling aircraft kinetics was the most common error for both sexes, but was more common among females(accounting for 81 percent of the crashes) than males (accounting for 48 percent). Males, however, appeared more likely to be guilty of poor decision-making, risk-taking, and inattentiveness, examples of which include misjudging weather and visibility or flying an aircraft with a known defect. Females, though more likely to mishandle or lose control of the aircraft, were generally more careful than their male counterparts. inattention /n.疏忽 aviation /n. 航空 flawed /adj.有缺陷的 mishandle /v. 瞎弄，乱处理 MPH ( Master of Public Health) 公共卫生硕士 gender /n.性，性别 run out 耗尽，用完 stall v. (飞机)失速, (发动机)熄火 kinetics /n. 动力学

阅读理解The Central Dogma Though it comes as no surprise that the composition of DNA between different organisms is different, it is not immediately obvious why the muscle cells, blood cells, and brain cells of any one particular vertebrate(脊椎动物) are so different in their structure and composition when the DNA of every one of their cells is identical. This is the key to one of the most exciting areas of modern cell biology. In different cell types, different sets of the total number of genes (genome) (基因组) are expressed. In other words, different regions of the DNA are "active" in the muscle cells, blood cells, and brain cells. To understand how this difference in DNA activity can lead to differences in cell structure and composition, it is necessary to consider what is often known as the central dogma(法则) of molecular biology: "DNA makes RNA make protein. " In molecular terms, a gene is that portion of DNA that encodes for a single protein. The dictum" one gene makes one protein" has required some modification(改变) with the discovery that some proteins are composed of several different polypeptide(多肽) chains, but the "one gene makes one polypeptide" rule does hold. DNA Contains the Blueprint for All Cell Proteins. Messenger RNA is a precise copy (transcript) of the coded sequence of nucleic acid bases in DNA, and this message is translated into a unique protein molecule on specialist organelles (ribo-somes) present in the cytoplasm(细胞质) of all cells. Proteins(蛋白质), which are largely made up of carbon(C) ,hydrogen(H), oxygen(O) ,and nitrogen(N) ,are constructed from 20 different, common amino acids. The versatility of proteins, the workhorse molecules of the cell, stems from the immense variety of molecular shapes that can be created, by linking amino acids together in different sequences. The smaller proteins consist of only a few dozen amino acids, whereas the larger ones may contain in excess of 200 amino acids, all linked together in a linear(线状的) chain by peptide bonds. As the proteins are released from the ribosome(核糖体) ,they fold into unique shapes, under the influence of chemical forces that depend on the particular sequence of amino acids. So the protein primary sequence , encoded in the gene and faithfully transcribed and translated into an amino acid chain, determines the three-dimensional structure of the emerging molecule. The human body possesses some 30 000 different kinds of proteins and several million copies of many of these. Each plays a specific role——for example, hemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood, actin(肌动蛋白) and myosin(肌球蛋白) interact to generate muscle movement, and acetylcholine (乙酸胆碱) receptor molecules mediate chemical transmission between nerve and muscle cells. Enzymes—Protein Biocatalysts An essential group of proteins—the enzymes (酵素)—act as biological catalysts (催化剂) and regulate all aspects of cell metabolism (新陈代谢). They enable breakdown of high-energy food molecules (carbohydrates) to provide energy for biological reactions, and they control the synthetic pathways that result in the generation of lipids(e.g., fats, cholesterol(胆固醇), and other vital membrane(膜) components), carbohydrates (碳水化合物) (sugars, starch (淀粉) , and cellulose (纤维素) , the key components of plant cell walls) ,and many vital small biomolecules essential for cell function.

阅读理解Health Education 1. Health education is the part of health care that is concerned with promoting healthy behavior. A person''s behavior may be the main cause of a health problem, but it can also be the main solution. This is true for the teenager who smokes, the mother with the poorly nourished (营养) child, and the butcher (屠夫,卖肉的人) who gets a cut on his finger. By changing their behavior these individuals can solve and prevent many of their own problems. 2. Health education does not replace other health services, but it is needed to promote the proper use of these services. One example of this is immunization (免疫) : scientists have made many vaccines (疫苗) to prevent diseases, but this achievement is of no value unless people go to receive the immunization. 3. Health education encourages behavior that promotes health, prevents illness, cures disease, and contributes to recovery. The needs and interests of individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities are at the heart of health education programs. Thus there, are many opportunities for practicing health education. 4. Health education is not the same thing as health information. Correct information is certainly a basic part of health education, but health education must also address the other factors that affect health behavior such as availability (可获性) of resources, effectiveness of community leadership, social support from family members, and levels of self-help skills. Health education therefore uses a variety of methods to help people understand their own situations and choose actions that will improve their health. Health education is incomplete unless it encourages involvement and choice by the people themselves. 5. Also, in health education we do not blame people if they do not behave in a healthy way. Often unhealthy behavior is not the fault of the individual. In health education we must work with families, communities, and even regional and national authorities to make sure that resources and support are available to enable each individual to lead a healthy life. A. Importance of Immunization B. Relationship with Other Health Services C. Creation of Necessary Conditions for Healthy Behavior D. Encouraging Unhealthy Behavior E. Encouragement of Behavior Good for Your Health F. Addressing a Variety of Behavior-affecting Factors

阅读理解The WOrd“prototype”(paragraph 5)means．

阅读理解Competition The question of whether war is inevitable is one which has concerned many of the worlds great writers. Before considering this question, it will be useful to introduce some related concepts. Conflict, defined as opposition among social entities directed against one another, is distinguished from competition, defined as opposition among social entities independently striving for something which is in inadequate supply. Competitors may not be aware of one another, while the parties to a conflict are. Conflict and competition are both categories of opposition, which has been defined as a process by which social entities function in the disservice of one another. Opposition is thus contrasted with cooperation, the process by which social entities function in the service of one another. These definitions are necessary because it is important to emphasize that competition between individuals or groups is inevitable in a world of limited resources, but conflict is not. Conflict, nevertheless, is very likely to occur, and is probably an essential and desirable element of human societies. Many authors have argued for the inevitability of war from the premise that in the struggle for existence among animal species, only the fittest survive. In general, however, this struggle in nature is competition, not conflict. Social animals, such as monkeys and cattle, fight to win or maintain leadership of the group. The struggle for existence occurs not in such fights, but in the competition for limited feeding areas and for the occupancy(占有)of areas free from meat-eating animals. Those who fail in this competition starve to death or become victims to other species. This struggle for existence does not resemble human war, but rather the competition of individuals for jobs, markets, and materials. The essence of the struggle is the competition for the necessities of life that are insufficient to satisfy all. Among nations there is competition in developing resources, trades, skills, and a satisfactory way of life. The successful nations grow and proper (繁荣); the unsuccessful decline. While it is true that this competition may induce efforts to expand territory at the expense of others, and thus lead to conflict, it cannot be said that warlike conflict among nations is inevitable, although competition is.

阅读理解Paragraph 6 __________.

阅读理解United Nations A major segment of the Untied Nations is the General Assembly, which consists of representatives from all governments that have ratified the UN Charter. As of 1995,185 states had membership in the general Assembly. Additionally, the Vatican, Switzerland, and the Palestine Liberation Organization have nonvoting observer status in the General Assembly. The General Assembly approves the UN''s budget, acts with the Security Council to select the Secretary-general and judges of the International Court of Justice, and passes resolutions on issues ranging from self-determination and colonialism to women''s rights and the global distribution of wealth. The General Assembly can meet and vote on any subject, unless the Security Council is dealing with it (or at least pretending to). However, its decisions only carry moral force—unlike the Council''s. They''re not binding in international laws. But the Assembly votes are an important opinion poll on how and what the majority of the world thinks about issues. " Important questions" need a two-thirds vote of the Assembly to pass. The question of what is an important question isn''t important. Its decided by the delegates themselves—by a simple majority. Although the General Assembly has not recognized authority to enforce its conclusions on anything other than internal UN matters, it makes its viewpoints on issues that are brought before it is known in one of the three ways. A General Assembly declaration is a broad statement of general principle such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, passed in 1948. Declarations are often put forward as an expression of an ideal, in practice they are regularly ignored. A General Assembly resolution is essentially a document that recommends that member states take a particular policy action. States claim sovereignty and make their own decisions as to whether they will follow a General Assembly resolution. In some cases, however, if many states implement a particular resolution, other states that may not wish to act on the resolution may feel themselves pressured to do so anyway. At the very least, a resolution has the effect of legitimizing the policies of those states that wish to comply with the resolution. Finally, a General Assembly convention, or treaty, has two meanings. The more comprehensive convention refers to multilateral treaties voted on by the General Assembly that, upon passage by the General Assembly, are carried back to the capitals of member states for ratification by whatever means each state uses domestically. In other cases, a General Assembly convention refers specifically to a treaty signed between the United Nations and the government of a nation-state, as when in 1956 Egypt agreed to allow United Nations peacekeeping forces to enter Egyptian territory.

阅读理解Stress Level Tied to Education Level People with less education suffer fewer stressful days, according to a report in the current issue of the Journal of Health and Social Behavior. However, the study also found that when less-educated people did suffer stress it was more severe and had a larger impact on their health. From this, researchers have concluded that the day-to-day factors that cause stress are not random. Where you are in society determines the kinds of problems that you have each day, and how well you will cope with them. The research team interviewed a national sample of 1,031 adults daily for eight days about their stress level and health. People without a high school diploma reported stress on 30 percent of the study days, people with a high school degree reported stress 38 percent of the time, and people with college degrees reported stress 44 percent of the time. "Less advantaged people are less healthy on a daily basis and are more likely to have downward turns in their health." lead researcher Dr. Joseph Grzywacz, of Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center, said in a prepared statement. "The downward turns in health were connected with daily stressors, and the effect of daily stressors on their health is much more devastating for the less advantaged." Grzywacz suggested follow-up research to determine why less-educated people report fewer days of stress when it is known their stress is more acute and chronic. "If something happens every day, maybe it''s not seen as a stressor" Grzywacz says. "Maybe it is just life. " stressful adj. 紧张的；压力重的 diploma n. 毕业文凭，毕业证书 stressor n. 紧张刺激物 devastating adj. 毁灭性的 follow-up n. (对病人的)随访