复合题In the place of the King, two chief executives were chosen annually by the whole body of citizens. These were known as praetors or leaders, but later received the title of consuls. The participation of a colleague in the exercise of supreme power and limitation of the tenure to one year prevented the chief magistrate from becoming autocratic. The character of the Senate was altered by the enrollment of the plebeian members, known as conscripti, and hence the official designation of the senators thereafter was patres conscripti (conscript fathers) . As yet, only patricians were eligible for the magistracies, and the discontent of the plebs led to a violent struggle between the two orders and the gradual removal of the social and political disabilities under which the plebs had labored.In 494 B. C. a secession of plebeian soldiers led to the institution of the tribune plebes, who were elected annually as protectors of the plebs; they had the power to veto the acts of patrician magistrates, and thus served as the leaders of the plebs in the struggles with the patricians. The appointment of the decemvirate, a commission of ten men, in 451 B. C. resulted in the drawing up of a famous code of laws. In 445 B. C. , under the Canuleian law, marriages between patricians and members of the plebs were declared legally valid. By the Licinuian- Sextian laws, passed in 367 B. C. , it was provided that one of the two consuls should thenceforth be plebeian. The other magistracies were gradually opened to the plebs: in 365 B. C. the dictatorship, an extraordinary magistracy, the incumbent of which was appointed in times of great danger; in 350 B. C. , the censorship; in 337 B. C. , the praetorship; and in 300 B. C. , the pontifical and augural colleges.These political changes gave rise to a new aristocracy, composed of patrician and wealthy plebeian families, and admission to the Senate became almost the hereditary privilege of these families. The Senate, which had originally possessed little administrative power, became a powerful governing body, dealing with matters of war and peace, foreign alliances, the founding of colonies, and the handling of the state finances. The rise of this new nobilitas brought to an end the struggles between the two orders, but the position of the poorer plebeian families was not improved, and the marked contrast between the conditions of the rich and the poor led to struggles in the later Republic between the aristocratic party and the popular Party.The external history of Rome during this period was chiefly military. Rome had acquired the leadership of Latium before the close of the regal period. Assisted by their allies, the Romans fought wars against the Etruscans, the Volscians, and the Aequians. The military policy of Rome became more aggressive in the 60 years between 449 and 390 B. C. The defeat of the Romans at Allia and the capture and burning of Rome by the Gauls under the leadership of the chieftain Brennus in 390 B. C. were great disasters, but their effect was temporary. The capture of the Etruscan city of Veii in 396 B. C. by the solider and statesman Marcus Furius Camillus spelled the beginning of the end of Etruscan independence. Other Etruscan cities hastened to make peace, and by the middle of the 4th B. C. all southern Etruria was kept in the check by Roman garrisons and the denationalized by an influx of Roman colonists. Vistories over the Volscians, the Latins, and the Hernicans gave Romans control of central Italy and brought them into conflict with the Samnites of southern Italy, who were defeated in a series of three wars, extending from 343 to 290 B. C. A powerful coalition was at this time formed against Rome, consisting of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls in the north, and of Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites in the south; this coalition endangered the power of Rome, but the northern confederacy was defeated in 283 B. C. and the southern states soon after.In 450 B. C. , the plebs _____.

复合题A team of international researchers has found new evidencethat an endangered subspecies of chimpanzee is the sourceof the virus that causes acquired immune deficiencysyndrome (AIDS) in humans. Experts said that the findingcould lead to new treatments for AIDS and contribute tothe development of a vaccine against the disease.The research team said the chimp—a subspecies known asPan troglodytes native to west central Africa—carries asimian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that is closelyrelated to three strains of human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) , the virus that causes AIDS. One of these strains,HIV-1, has caused the vast majority of the estimated 30million HIV infections around the world.The researchers are uncertain when the chimp virus, calledSIVcpz (for simian immunodeficiency virus chimpanzee) ,first infected humans, although the oldest documented caseof HIV has been linked to a Bantu man who died in CentralAfrica in 1959. But they said the virus, which does notappear to harm the chimps, was most likely transmitted tohumans when hunters were exposed to chimp blood whilekilling and butchering the animals for food. Oncetransmitted to humans, the researchers believe the virusmutated into HIV-1.Team leader Beatrice Hahn, an AIDS researcher at theUniversity of Alabama in Birmingham, said the chimps haveprobably carried the virus for hundreds of thousands ofyears. Since humans have likely hunted the animals, Hahnsaid the virus may have jumped to humans on manyoccasions, but was not transmitted widely among humansuntil the 20 th century. Increased hunting of thechimpanzees, along with human migration to African citiesand changing sexual mores could help explain the recentepidemic, Hahn said.Scientists had long suspected that a nonhuman primate wasthe source of HIV-1. Earlier studies suggested that thesooty mangabey monkey, a native of West Africa, was thelikely source of HIV-2—a rarer form of the AIDS virusthat is transmitted less easily than HIV-1. However, onlya few samples of SIV strains exist, making it difficultfor researchers to confidently connect the strains to HIV-1.As part of their effort to discover the source of HIV-1,the research team studied the four known samples ofSIVcpz. They learned that three of the four samples camefrom chimps belonging to the subspecies P. t. troglodytes.The remaining sample came from another subspecies, Pantroglodytes schweinfurthii, which inhabits East Africa.The team then compared the SIVcpz strains to each otherand found that all three of the viruses from R t.troglodytes viruses strongly resembled all three HIV-1subgroups.Additional evidence that HIV-1 could be linked to P. t.troglodytes came when the researchers examined thechimpsnatural habitat. The researchers quicklydiscovered that the chimps live primarily in the WestAfrican nations of Cameroon, Central African Republic,Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Republic of the Congo, thegeographic region where HIV-1 was first identified.Upon closer study, the researchers learned that the chimpswere being killed in growing numbers of the so-called bushmeat trade, a trend assisted by the construction of newlogging roads in once remote forests. The researchers saidthat continued hunting of the animals meant that manypeople are still likely to be exposed to SIVcpz,increasing the risk of additional cross-speciestransmissions.Many AIDS researchers welcomed the teams finding, butsaid the new work had not proved the connectiondefinitely. Most of the doubts centered on the difficultyof drawing conclusions from such a small number of SIVcpzsamples. Because so few samples exist—all drawn fromchimps in captivity—researchers do not know how prevalentthe virus is among wild chimps, or how the virus istransmitted. Doubts are likely to persist until the courseof the virus is studied in chimps in the wild.Some health experts said the finding could have far-reaching implications for combating AIDS. Because SIVcpzdoes not cause the chimps to become ill, researchersbelieve that the animalsdisease-fighting immune systemmay have developed a defense against the virus. Sincechimps are 98 percent genetically similar to humans,learning more about the chimpsimmune systems could shedlight on newways to prevent and treat AIDS in humans.Discovering how the chimps immune system controls thevirus, for example, could help researchers develop avaccine that generates a similar immune-system response inhumans.Other experts noted that even if the finding does not helpin the fight against AIDS, it provides strong evidencethat dangerous viruses can be transmitted to humans fromwild animals. In some cases, the viruses may be harmlessto the host animals, but cause sickness and death whentransmitted to humans. As people increasingly venture intoremote animals habitats, some scientists believe there isa growing risk of new human exposures to previouslyunknown disease-causing microbes.In the meantime, widespread slaughter of the chimps couldmake further study of R t. troglodytes difficult. The wildchimp population, which exceeded 1 million animals in theearly 20th century, is now believed to number fewer than100, 000. “We cannot afford to lose these animals, eitherfrom the animals conservation point of view or a medicalinvestigation standpoint, ” said Hahn. “It is quitepossible that the chimpanzee, which has served as thesource of HIV-1, also holds the clues to its successfulcontrol. ”What is the biggest worry that the researchers now have?

复合题In this section there are four passages followed by 20 questions or unfinished statements, each with four suggested answers marked A. B, C and D. Choose the one that you think is the correct answer

复合题Passage TwoClass informs everything from the circumstances ofpatients’ heart attacks to the emergency care eachreceives, the households they return to and the jobs theyhope to resume. It shapes their understanding of theirillness, the support they get from their families, theirrelationships with their doctors. It helps define theirability to change their lives and shapes their odds ofgetting better.Class is a powerful force in health and longevity in theUnited States. The more education and income people have,the less likely they are to have and die of heart disease,strokes, diabetes and many types of cancer. Upper-middle-class Americans live longer and in better health thanmiddle-class Americans, who live longer and better thanthose at the bottom. And the gaps are widening, say peoplewho have researched social factors in health.As advances in medicine and disease prevention haveincreased life expectancy in the United States, thebenefits have disproportionately gone to people witheducation, money, good jobs and connections. They arealmost invariably in the best position to learn newinformation early, modify their behavior, take advantageof the latest treatments and have the cost covered byinsurance.Many risk factors for chronic diseases are now more commonamong the less educated than the better educated. Smokinghas dropped sharply among the better educated, but notamong the less. Physical inactivity is more than twice ascommon among high school dropouts as among collegegraduates. Lower-income women are more likely than otherwomen to be overweight, though the pattern among men maybe the opposite.There may be subtler differences. Some researchers nowbelieve that the stress involved in so-called high-demand,low-control jobs further down the occupational scale ismore harmful than the stress of professional jobs thatcome with greater autonomy and control. Others arestudying the health impact of job insecurity, lack ofsupport on the job, and employment that makes it difficultto balance work and family obligations.Then there is the issue of social networks and support,the differences in the knowledge, time and attention thata person’ s family and friends are in a position to offer.What is the effect of social isolation? Neighborhooddifferences have also been studied: How stressful is aneighborhood? Are there safe places to exercise? What arethe health effects of discrimination?“In the last 20 years, there have been enormous advancesin rescuing patients with heart attack and in knowledgeabout how to prevent heart attack, ” said Ichiro Kawachi,a professor of social epidemiology at the Harvard Schoolof Public Health. “It’ s like diffusion of innovation:whenever innovation comes along, the well-to-do are muchquicker at adopting it. On the lower end, variousdisadvantages have piled onto the poor. Diet has gottenworse. There’ s a lot more work stress. People have lesstime, if they’ re poor, to devote to health maintenancebehaviors when they are juggling two jobs. Mortality rateseven among the poor are coming down, but the rate is notanywhere near as fast as for the well-to-do. So the gaphas increased. ”

复合题Inthefieldofsleepanddreams,thesearepromisingtimes.Butthere’sbeennoyearmoremomentousthan1953.Untilthen,scientistshadequatedsleepwithflickingoffadesklamp.Formorethantwodecadesthey’dbeenabletorecordbrainactivityinsleep,butthefeelingwas,whybother?Whywastereamsofcostlygraphpapermakingelectroencephalogramrecordingsofwhatwasthoughttobeaneurologicaldesert?Withnostrongexpectationoffindingotherwise,UniversityofChicagoresearchersEugeneAserinskiandNathanieldecideditwasworthdoing,monitoring10subjectsinalaboratory.Theirfindingsturnedourunderstandingofthesleepingbrainupsidedown.Whattheydiscoveredwasasleepstateinwhichthebrainis,inmanyways,everybitasactiveaswhenit’sawake;astateinwhich,comparedwithotherstagesofsleep,theheartbeatsfasterbreathingquickensblondpressureandbloodflowtothebrain(andsexualorgans)use,whiletheeyesmoverapidlybeneaththeirlids.Brainwavesarelow-voltageandhigh-frequency—theoppositetothebrainwavesofdeepsleep,morelikewhatgoesonwhenapersonisawake,thinkingandtalking.AwokenfromthisparadoxicalstatethatAserinskiandKleitmancalledRspidEyeMovement(REM)sleep,subjectscouldusuallyrecallvividdreams.Inasingleswoop,thepairhadnotonlyuncoveredwhatmanyregardasathirdstateofconsciousness,butraisedexpectationsthatthemysteriesofhowandwhywedreammightsoonbesolved.Thequestforanswershasbeenhinderedbydoubt:isdreamingamysteryworthsolving?Sciencehaslonghaduneasyrelationshipwithournocturnalimaginings.Whilesomebrilliantpractitionershaveworked—anddowork—inthefield,itslinkswithmysticismandFreudiantheoryhaverepelledotherslikeabadodor.Everybodydreamsandmostpeopletalkabouttheirsnowandagain.Butonce,aschildren,welearntodistinguishthesedelusionsfromreality,dreamsusuallybecomenomorethanasideshow,sometimesdisturbing,occasionallypoignant,butmostlysomethingtobeforgotten,quicklyandcompletely,iftheywererememberedinthefirstplace.It’seasy,inotherwords,tolosesightofwhataremarkablephenomenondreamingis.Everynightdevoidofexternalsensorystimulation,ourbrainsscreeninternally-projectedfilmsconcoctedfrompiecesofourownthoughts.Nearlyalwaysintheleadrole,wefleefromdanger,triumphandflopinourareasofendeavorandenjoypassionateencounterswithpeopleweyearnfororhardlyknow.Wedothesethingsandcountlessothersnotinastateofdetachmentbutrather,despitethebizarredistortionstypicalofdreams,convincedtheeventsarerealandwithouremotionsandsensesengaged.Thatthemovieswewatchintheatersweresoengrossing.

复合题OnAug.14,2007acomputerhackernamedVirgilGirlishunleashedacleverlittleprogramontotheInternetthathedubbedWikiScanner.It’sasimpleapplicationthattrollsthroughtherecordsofWikipedia,thepubliclyeditableWeb-basedencyclopedia,andchecksonwhoismakingchangestowhichentries.Sometimesit’speoplewhoshouldn’tbe.Fогexample,WikiScannerturnedupevidencethatsomebodyfromWal-MarthadpunchedupWal-Mart’sWikipediaentry.Badretailgiant.WikiScannerisajollylittlegameofInternet,butit’sreallyaboutsomethingmore:agrowingpopularirritationwiththeInternetingeneral.TheNethasanarehyinitsDNA;it’salwaysbeenaboutanonymity,playingwithyourownidentityandmessingwithotherpeople’sheads.Theidea,suchasitwas,seemstohavebeenthattheInternetwouldfreeusoftheburdenofourpublicidentitiessowecouldbeourtrue,authenticselvesonline.Exceptitturnsoutwhocould’veseenthiscoming?—thatourtrue,authenticselvesaren’tthatfantastic.Thegreatexperimentprovedthatsomeofusarewonderfulandinterestingbutthatalotofusarehackersandprankstersandhucksters,whichisonewayofexplainingtheextraordinaryappealofFacebook.Facebookisa“socialnetwork”:awebsiteforkeepingtrackofyourfriendsandsendingthemmessagesandsharingphotosanddoingallthoseotherthingsthatagoodlittleWeb2.0companyissupposedtohelpyoudo.ItwasstartedbyHarvardstudentsin2004asatoolformeetingatleastdiscreetlyogling—otherHarvardstudents,anditstillhasareputationasahangoutforteenagersandtheteenaged-at-heart,whichisironicbecauseFacebookisreallyaboutmakingtheWebgrowup.WhereasGoogleisabrillianttechnologicalhack,Facebookisprimarilyafeatofsocialengineering.(Itwouldn’tbeabadideaforGoogletoacquireFacebook,thewayitsnaffledYouTube,butit’salmostcertainlytoolateinthedayforthat.Yahoo!offeredabillionforFacebooklastyearandwasrebuffed.)Facebook’sappealisbothobviousandrathersubtle.It’sawebsite,butinasense,it’sanotherversionoftheInternetitself:aNetwithinaNet,onethat’severythingthelargerNetisnot.Facebookiscleanlydesignedandhasaclassy,upmarketfeeltoit—awhiffoftheIvyLeaguestillclings.PeopletendtousetheirrealnamesonFacebook.Theyalsodeclaretheirsex,age,whereabouts,romanticstatusandinstitutionalaffiliations.IdentityisnotaperformanceoratoyonFacebook:itisafixedandorderlyfact.Nobodydoesanythingsecretly:anewsfeedconstantlyupdatesyourfriendsonyouractivities.OnFacebook,everybodyknowsyou’readog.Maybethat’swhyFacebook’sfastest-growingdemographicconsistsofpeople35orolder:they’rerefugeesfromtheuncouthwiderWeb.Everycommunitymustnegotiatetheimperativesofindividualfreedomandcollectivesocialorder,andFacebookconstitutesacriticalrebalancingoftheInternet’sfoundingvisionofunfetteredelectronicliberty.Ofcourse,itispossibletomisbehaveonFacebook—it’sjustself-defeating.UnliketheInternet,Facebookisstructuredaroundanopt-inphilosophy;peoplehavetoconsenttohavecontactwithorevenseeothersonthenetwork.Ifyou’reannoyingfolks,you’llessentiallyceasetoexist,asthoseyouannoydropyouoffthegrid.Facebookhastakenstepsthisyeartoexpanditsfunctionalitybyallowingoutsidedeveloperstocreateapplicationsthatintegratewithitspages,whichbringswithitexpandedopportunitiesforabuse.NodoubtGriffithishardatworkonFacebookScanner.Butithasalsohungondoggedlytoitscoreinsight:thatthemostimportantfunctionofasocialnetworkisconnectingpeopleandthatitssecondmostimportantfunctioniskeepingthemapart.

复合题Passage 2In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related. A theory ofteninvolves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an observed event could beproduced. A good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases arepictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant motion.A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to predict events that have not asyet been observed. After a theory has been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory.If observations confirm the scientists’ predictions, the theory is supported. If observations do notconfirm the predictions, the scientists must search further. There may be a fault in the experiment, orthe theory may have to be revised or rejected.Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting information and performingexperiments. Facts by themselves are not science. As the mathematician Jules Henri Pioneered said,“Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts cannot becalled science any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house.”Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have learned about aparticular problem. After known facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of theinvestigation that requires considerable imagination. Possible solutions to the problem areformulated. These possible solutions are called hypotheses.In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It extends the scientist’s thinking beyond theknown facts. The scientist plans experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to testhypotheses. For without hypotheses, further investigation lacks purpose and direction. Whenhypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into theories.Which of the following statements is supported by the passage?

复合题Nearlysixyearsafterthesequenceofthehumangenomewassketchedout,onemightassumethatresearchershadworkedoutwhatallthatDNAmeans.Butanewinvestigationhasleftthemwonderingjusthowsimilaroneperson’sgenomeistoanother’s.GeneticistshavegenerallyassumedthatyourstringofDNAlettersis99.9%identicaltothatofyourneighbor’s,withdifferencesintheoddindividualletter.Thesedifferencesmakeeachpersongeneticallyunique—influencingeverythingfromappearanceandpersonalitytosusceptibilitytodisease.Butholdon,saytheauthorsofanewstudypublishedinNature.Theyhaveidentifiedsurprisinglylargechunksofthegenomethatcandifferdramaticallyfromonepersontothenext.Everyonehasauniquepattern,saysoneoftheleadauthors,MatthewHurlesattheWelcomeTrustSangerInstituteinCambridge,UK.Thedifferencesinquestion—madeupofstretchesofDNAthatspantenstohundredsofthousandsofchemicalletters—arecalledcopy-numbervariants,orCNVs.WithinagivenstretchofDNA,onepersonmaycarryonecopyofaDNAsegment;anothermayhavetwo,threeormore.Theregionmightbecompletelyabsentfromathirdperson’sgenome.Andsometimesthesegmentsareshuffledupindifferentways.Thesevariableregionsreceivedshortshriftformanyyears.Whenthehumangenomesequencewaspiecedtogether,theywerelargelyglossedover,becauseresearcherswerefocusedonfindingoneoverarchingreferencesequence—andbecausetherepetitivenatureofthesegmentsmakesthemhardtosequence.Itwassweptundertherug,saysMichaelWigler,whoisalsomappingCNVsatColdSpringHarborLaboratory,NewYork.Thenewstudy,ledbyHurlesandStephenSchereroftheHospitalforSickChildreninToronto,Canada,andtheircolleaguesisthemostdetailedattempttofindhowCNVsarescatteredacrossthewholehumangenome.Todothis,theycomparedgenomechunksfrom270peopleofEuropean,AfricanorAsianancestry.Theyfoundnearly1,500suchregions,takingupsome12%ofthehumangenome.Thatdoesn’tmeanthatyourDNAis12%differentfrommine(or88%similar),becauseanytwopeople’sDNAwilldifferatonlyahandfulofthesespots.Accordingtotheteam’sback-of-the-envelopecalculations,oneperson’sDNAisprobably99.5%similartotheirneighbor’s,orabitless.I’vetriedtodothecalculationandit’sverycomplicated,saysHurles.Italldependsonhowyoudotheaccounting.Theanswerisalsounclearbecauseresearchersthinkthattherearemanymorevariableblocksofsequencethatare10,000or1,000letterslongandwereexcludedfromthecurrentstudy.

复合题As in the case of so many words used by the biologist and physiologist, the word acclimatization is hard to define. With increase in knowledge and understanding, meanings of words change. Originally the term acclimatization was taken to mean only the ability of human beings or animals or plants to accustom themselves to new and strange climatic conditions, primarily altered temperature. A person or a wolf moves to a hot climate and is uncomfortable there, but after a time is better able to withstand the heat. But aside from temperature, there are other aspects of climate. A person or an animal may become adjusted to living at higher altitudes than those it was originally accustomed to. At really high altitudes, such as aviators may be exposed to, the low atmospheric pressure becomes a factor of primary importance. In changing to a new environment, a person may, therefore, meet new conditions of temperature or pressure, and in addition may have to contend with different chemical surroundings. On high mountains, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere may be relatively small; in crowded cities, a person may become exposed to relatively high concentrations of carbon dioxide or even carbon monoxide, and in various areas may be exposed to conditions in which the water content of the atmosphere is extremely high or extremely low. Thus in the case of humans, animals, and even plants, the concept of acclimatization includes the phenomena of increased toleration of high or low temperature, of altered pressure, and of changes in the chemical environment.Let us define acclimatization, therefore, as the process in which an organism or a part of an organism becomes inured to an environment which is normally unsuitable to it or lethal for it. By and large, acclimatization is a relatively slow process. The term should not be taken to include relatively rapid adjustments such as our sense organs are constantly making. This type of adjustment is commonly referred to by physiologists as “adaptation.” Thus our touch sense soon becomes accustomed to the pressure of our clothes and we do not feel them; we soon fail to hear the ticking of a clock; obnoxious orders after a time fail to make much impression on us, and our eyes in strong light rapidly become insensitive. The fundamental fact about acclimatization is that all animals and plants have some capacity to adjust themselves to changes in their environment. This is one of the most remarkable characteristics of living organisms, a characteristic for which it is extremely difficult to find explanations.

复合题Constant vigilance: that is the task of the people who protect society from enemies intent on using subterfuge and violence to get their way. It is also the watch word of those who fear that the protectors will pursue the collective interest at untold cost to individual rights. Edward Snowden, a young security contractor, has come down on one side of that tussle by leaking documents showing that the National Security Agency (NSA) spied on millions of Americans’ phone records on the internet activity of hundreds of millions of foreigners.The documents, published by the Guardian and the Washington Post, include two big secrets. One is a court order telling Verizon, a telecoms company, to hand over “metadata” , such as the duration, direction and location of subscribers’ calls. The other gives some clues about a programme called PRISM, which collects e-mails, files and social-networking data from firms such as Google, Apple and Facebook. Much of this eavesdropping has long been surmised, and none of it is necessarily illegal. America gives wide powers to its law-enforcement and spy agencies. They are overseen by Congress and courts, which issue orders to internet firms.Barack Obama has responded to the leaks by saying that he “welcomes” a debate on the trade-off between privacy, security and convenience. Despite the president’ s words, however, the administration and much of Congress seem unwilling to talk about the programmes they oversee; and the politicians and executives who do want to speak out are gagged by secrecy laws. Opinion polls show that Americans are divided about the merits of surveillance— which is partly because they know so little about what is going on. But spying in a democracy depends for its legitimacy on informed consent, not blind trust.You might argue that the spies are doing only what is necessary. Al-Qaeda’ s assaults on September 11th 2001 demonstrated to politicians everywhere that their first duty is to ensure their own citizens’ safety. With Islamist bombers, there is a good case for using electronic surveillance: they come from a population that is still hard for Western security services to penetrate, and they make wide use of mobile phones and the internet. The NSA’ s boss, Keith Alexander, says the ploys revealed by Mr. Snowden have stopped dozens of plots. The burden on society of sweeping up information about them has been modest compared with the wars launched against Afghanistan and Iraq. And the public seems happy: if there were another attack on America, Mr. Snowden would soon be forgotten.Yet because the spies choose what to reveal about their work, nobody can judge if the cost and intrusion are proportionate to the threat. One concern is the size, scope and cost of the security bureaucracy: some 1. 4 million people have “top secret” clearances of the kind held by Mr. Snowden. Is that sensible?A second worry is the effect on America’ s ties with other countries. The administration’ s immediate response to the PRISM revelation was that Americans have nothing to fear: it touched only foreigners. That adds insult to injury in countries that count themselves as close American allies: the European Union, in particular, fastidiously protects its citizens’ data. Fears abound that the spy agencies practice a cynical swap, in which each respects the letter of the law protecting the rights of its own people—but lets its allies do the snooping instead.Lawyerly officials denials of such machinations fail to reassure because of the third worry: the governments acting outside public scrutiny are not to be trusted. James Clapper, America’ s director of national intelligence, told Congress in March that the NSA does not gather data on “millions of Americans” . He now says he answered in “the least untruthful manner” possible. Trawls through big databases may produce interesting clues —but also life-ruining false alarms, especially when the resulting decisions are cloaked in secrecy. Those on “no- fly lists” , which ban an unknown number of people from most air travel, are not told what they have done wrong and cannot clear their names. In desperation, 13 American citizens, including some who were exiled from their own country by the travel ban, are suing the government.Our point is not that America’ s spies are doing the wrong things, but that the level of public scrutiny is inadequate and so is the right of redress. Without these, officials will be tempted to abuse their powers, because the price of doing so is small. This is particularly true for those who bug and ban.Spooks do need secrecy, but not on everything, always and everywhere. Officials will complain that disclosure would hinder their efforts in what is already an unfair fight. Yet some operational efficiency is worth sacrificing, because public scrutiny is a condition for popular backing. Even allowing for the need to keep some things clandestine, Americans need a clearer idea of what their spies are doing in their name.

复合题What’salabelworth?Alot,itseems.MichaelHiscoxandNicholasSmyth,twoHarvardUniversityresearchers,conductedanexperimentontwosetsoftowelsinanupmarketNewYorkshop.Onelotcarriedalabelwiththelogo“FairandSquare”andthefollowingmessage:Thesetowelshavebeenmadeunderfairlabourconditions,inasafeandhealthyworkingenvironmentwhichisfreeofdiscrimination,andwheremanagementhascommittedtorespectingtherightsanddignityofworkers.Theothersethadnosuchlabel.Overfivemonths,theresearchersobservedtheimpactofmakingvariouschangessuchasswitchingthelabeltotheothersetoftowelsandraisingprices.Theresultswerestriking:notonlydidsalesoftowelsincreasewhentheycarriedtheFairandSquarelabel,theycarriedonincreasingeachtimethepricewasraised.Ongreenery,Britishconsumersaredividedintofourbroadoneintenispassionatelygreenandwillgooutoftheirwaytoshopaccordingly.Attheotherendofthespectrumone-quarter,arenotinterested.In-betweenarethosewhocarebutwantgreenconsumptiontobeeasy,andthosewhoarevaguelyconcernedbutdon’tseehowtheycanmakeadifference.Thatrepresentsanopportunity:three-quartersofBritishconsumersareinterestedinthegreenthemeinsomeway.Buteventhekeenestethicalconsumerfacescomplicatedtrade-offs,andsometimestheapparentlyobviousethicalchoiceturnsouttobethewrongone.SurelyitmustbegreenforBritonstobuyrosesfromtheNetherlandsthanonesair-freightedfromKenya?Infact,astudyatCranfieldUniversityshowedthatcarbonfootprintoftheDutchrosestobesixtimesaslargebecausetheyhadtobegrowninheatedgreenhouses.Consumersarerighttobesuspiciousoftheethicalclaimsmadeformanyproducts.Arecentstudyofthelabelsof1018productinbigstoresinNorthAmericabyTeraChouce,anenvironmentalmarketingagency,foundthatalmostallofthemwereguiltyofsomeformof“green-washing.”Theydidnottelloutrightlies,butnordidtheytellthewholetruth.

复合题Passage BWe live in southern California growing grapes, a firstgeneration of vintners, our home adjacent to the vineyardsand the winery. Its a very pretty place, and in order toearn the money to realize our dream of making wine, weworked for many years in a business that demanded severalhousehold moves, an incredible amount of risk-taking andlong absences from my husband. When it was time, we tradedin our old life, cinched up our belts and began thecreation of the winery.We make small amounts of premium wine, and our lives aredictated by the rhythm of nature and the demands of theliving vines. The vines start sprouting tiny greentendrils in March and April, and the baby grapes begin toform in miniature, so perfect that they can be dipped ingold to form jewelry. The grapes swell and ripen in earlyfall, and when their sugar content is at the right level,they are harvested carefully by hand and crushed in smalllots. The wine is fermented and tended until it is readyto be bottled. The vineyards shed their leaves; the vinesare pruned and made ready for the dormant months—and thenext vintage.It sounds nice, doesnt it? Living in the country, ourdays were spent in the ancient routine of the vineyard;knowing that the course of our lives as vintners waschoreographed long ago and that if we practiceddiligently, our wine would be good and wed besuccessful. From the start we knew there was a price forthe privilege of becoming a winemaking family, connectedto the land and the caprices of nature.We work hard at something we love, we are slow to panicover the daily emergencies, and we are nimble at solvingproblems as they arise. Some hazards to completing asuccessful vintage are expected: rain just beforeharvesting that can cause mold; electricity unexpectedlyinterrupted during the cold fermentation of white wine candamage it, a delayed payment from a major client when themoney is needed.There are outside influences that disrupt production andtake patience, good will and perseverance. For example,the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms regulatesevery facet of the wine business. A winerys records areaudited as often as two or three times a year and everylabel—newly written for each years vintage—must beapproved.The greatest threat to the winery, and one that almostmade us lose heart came out of a lawyers imagination.Our little winery was served notice that we were named ina lawsuit accusing us of endangering the public health byusing lead foils on our bottles (it was the only materialused until recently) “without warning consumers of apossible risk. ” There it was, our winerys name listedwith the industrys giants.I must have asked a hundred times: “Who gets the money ifthe lawsuit is successful?” The answer was, and I neverwas able to assimilate it, the plaintiffs and theirlawyers who filed the suit! Since the lawsuit was broughtin on behalf of consumers, it seemed to me that consumersmust get something if it was proved that a lead foil wasdangerous to them. We were told one of the two consumerclaimants was an employee of the firm filing the suit!There are attorneys who focus their careers on lawsuitslike this. It is an immense danger to the smallbusinessman. Cash reserves can be used up in the blink ofan eye when in the company of lawyers. As long as itspossible for anyone to sue anybody for anything, we areall in danger. As long as the legal profession allowsmembers to practice law dishonorably and lawyers arecongratulated for winning big money in this way, wellall be plagued with a corruptible justice system.The writer complains that when she questioned the lawyers she _____.

复合题Passage 3Mrs. Moreen, however, continued to be convincing; sitting there with her fifty francs she talked andrepeated, as women repeat, and bored and irritated him, while he leaned against the wall with hishands in the pocket of his wrapper, drawing it together round his legs and looking over the head of hisvisitor at the grey negations of his window. She wound up with saying: “You see I bring you a definiteproposal.”“A definite proposal?”“To make our relations regular, as it were—to put them on a comfortable footing.”“I see—it’s a system,” said Pemberton. “A kind of blackmail.”Mrs. Moreen bounded up, which was what the young man wanted.“What do you mean by that?”“You practice on one’s fears—one’s fears about the child if one should go away.”“And pray, with whom should a child be but those whom he loves most?”“If you think that, why don’t you dismiss me?”“Do you pretend that he loves you more than he loves us” cried Mrs. Moreen.“I think he ought to. I make sacrifices for him. Though I’ve heard of those you make, I don’t see them.Mrs. Moreen stared a moment; then, with emotion, she grasped Pemberton’s hand. “Will you make it—the sacrifice?”Pemberton burst out laughing. “I’ll see—I’ll do what I can—I’ll stay a little longer. Your calculationis just—I do hate intensely to give him up; I’m fond of him and he interests me deeply, in spite of theinconvenience I suffer. You know my situation perfectly; I haven’t a penny in the world, and, occupiedas I am with Morgan, I’m unable to earn money.”Mrs. Moreen tapped her undressed arm with her folded banknote. “Can’t you write articles? Can’tyou translate as I do?”“I don’t know about translating; it’s wretchedly paid.”“I am glad to earn what I can,” said Mrs. Moreen virtuously, with her head held high.“You ought to tell me who you do it for.” Pemberton paused a moment, and she said nothing; so headded: “I’ve tried to turn off some sketches, but the magazines won’t have them—they’ve declinedwith thanks.”“You see then you’re not such a phoenix—to have such pretensions,” smiled his interlocutress.“I haven’t time to do things properly,” Pemberton went on. Then as it came over him that he wasalmost abjectly good-natured to give these explanations he added: “If I stay on longer it must be onone condition—that Morgan shall know distinctly on what footing I am.”Mrs. Moreen hesitated. “Surely you don’t want to show off to a child?”“To show you off, do you mean?”Again Mrs. Moreen hesitated, but this time it was to produce a still finer flower. “And you talk ofblackmail!”“You can easily prevent it,” said Pemberton.“And you talk of practicing on fears,” Mrs. Moreen continued.“Yes, there’s no doubt I’m a great scoundrel.”Throughout the passage, Pemberton represents himself as all of the following EXCEPT _____.

复合题The biggest problem facing Chile as it promotes itself asa tourist destination to be reckoned with, is that it isat the end of the earth. It is too far south to be aconvenient stop on the way to anywhere else and is muchfarther than a relatively cheap half-days flight awayfrom the big tourist markets, unlike Mexico, for example.Chile, therefore, has to fight hard to attract tourists,to convince travelers that it is worth coming halfwayround the world to visit. But it is succeeding, not onlyin existing markets like the USA and Western Europe but innew territories, in particular the Far East. Marketscloser to home, however, are not being forgotten. Morethan 50% of visitors to Chile still come from its nearestneighbor, Argentina, where the cost of living is muchhigher.Like all South American countries, Chile sees tourism as avaluable earner of foreign currency, although it has beenfar more serious than most in promoting its image abroad.Relatively stable politically within the region, it hasbenefited from the problems suffered in other areas. InPeru,guerrilla warfare in recent years has dealt a heavyblow to the tourist industry and fear of street crime inBrazil has reduced the attraction of Rio de Janeiro as adream destination for foreigners.More than 150, 000 people are directly involved in Chilestourist sector, an industry which earns the country morethan US $ 950 million each year. The state-run NationalTourist Service, in partnership with a number of privatecompanies, is currently running a worldwide campaign,taking part in trade fairs and international events toattract visitors to Chile.Chiles great strength as a tourist destination is itsgeographical diversity. From the parched Atacama Desert inthe north to the Antarctic snowfields of the south, it ismore than 5, 000 km long. With the Pacific on one side andthe Andean mountains on the other, Chile boasts naturalattractions. Its beaches are not up to Caribbean standardsbut resorts such as Vina del Mar are generally clean andun-spoilt and have a high standard of services.But the trump card is the Andes mountain range. There area number of excellent ski resorts within one hours driveof the capital, Santiago, and the national parks in thesouth are home to rare animal and plant species. The parksalready attract specialist visitors, includingmountaineers, who come to climb the technically difficultpeaks, and fishermen, lured by the salmon and trout in theregions rivers.However, infrastructural development in these areas islimited. The ski resorts do not have as many lifts astheir European counterparts and the poor quality of roadsin the south means that only the most determined travelerssee the best of the national parks.Air links between Chile and the rest of the world are, atpresent, relatively poor. While Chiles two largestairlines have extensive networks within South America,they operate only a small number of routes to the UnitedStates and Europe, while services to Asia are almost non-existent.Internal transport links are being improved and luxuryhotels are being built in one of its national parks. Noris development being restricted to the Andes. EasterIsland and Chiles Antarctic Territory are also on thelist of areas where the Government believes it can createtourist markets.But the rush to open hitherto inaccessible areas to masstourism is not being welcomed by everyone. Indigenous andenvironmental groups, including Greenpeace, say that manyparts of the Andes will suffer if they become over-developed. There is a genuine fear that areas of Chilewill suffer the cultural destruction witnessed in Mexicoand European resorts.The policy of opening up Antarctica to tourism is alsopolitically sensitive. Chile already has permanentsettlements on the ice and many people see the decision toallow tourists there as a political move, enhancingSantiagos territorial claim over part of Antarctica.The Chilean Government has promised to respect theenvironment as it seeks to bring tourism to these areas.But there are immense commercial pressures to exploit thecountrys tourism potential. The Government will have tomonitor developments closely if it is genuinely concernedin creating a balanced, controlled industry and if theprice of an increasingly lucrative tourist market is notgoing to mean the loss of many of Chiles natural riches.The objection to the development of Chile’ s tourism might be all EXCEPT that it _____.

复合题Directions: This section consists of a short passage. In this passage, there are altogether I0 mistakes, one in each numbered line. You may have to change a word, add a word or delete a word. Mark out the mistakes and put the corrections in the blanks provided. If you change a word, cross it out and write the correct word in the corresponding blank. If you add a word, put an insertion mark (A) in the right place and write the missing word in the blank. If you delete a word, cross it and put a slash (/) in the blank.Example:

复合题Passage AThe fox really exasperated them both. As soon as they had let the fowls out, in the early summer mornings, they had to take their guns and keep guard; and then again as soon as evening began to mellow, they must go once more. And he was so sly. He slid along in the deep grass; he was difficult as a serpent to see. And he seemed to circumvent the girls deliberately. Once or twice March had caught sight of the white tip of his brush, or the ruddy shadow of him in the deep grass, and she had let fire at him. But he made no account of this.The trees on the wood edge were a darkish, brownish green in the full light-for it was the end of August. Beyond, the naked, copper like shafts and limbs of the pine trees shone in the air. Nearer the rough grass, with its long, brownish stalks all agleam, was full of light. The fowls were round about—the ducks were still swimming on the pond under the pine trees. March looked at it all, saw it all, and did not see it. She heard Banford speaking to the fowls in the distance—and she did not hear. What was she thinking about? Heaven knows. Her consciousness was, as it were, held back.She lowered her eyes, and suddenly saw the fox. He was looking up at her. His chin was pressed down, and his eyes were looking up. They met her eyes. And he knew her. She was spellbound—she knew he knew her. So he looked into her eyes, and her soul failed her. He knew her, he has not daunted.She struggled, confusedly she came to herself, and saw him making off, with slow leaps over some fallen boughs, slow, impudent jumps. Then he glanced over his shoulder, and ran smoothly away. She saw his brush held smooth like a feather, she saw his white buttocks twinkle. And he was gone, softly, soft as the wind.She put her gun to her shoulder, but even then pursed her mouth, knowing it was nonsense to pretend to fire. So she began to walk slowly after him, in the direction he had gone, slowly, pertinaciously. She expected to find him. In her heart she was determined to find him. What she would do when she saw him again she did not consider. But she was determined to find him. So she walked abstractedly about on the edge of the wood, with wide, vivid dark eyes, and a faint flush in her cheeks. She did not think. In strange mindlessness she walked hither and thither.As soon as supper was over, she rose again to go out,without saying why.She took her gun again and went to look for the fox. For he had lifted his eyes upon her, and his knowing look seemed to have entered her brain. She did not so much think of him: she was possessed by him. She saw his dark, shrewd, unabashed eye looking into her, knowing her. She felt him invisibly master her spirit. She knew the way he lowered his chin as he looked up, she knew his muzzle, the golden brown, and the grayish white. And again she saw him glance over his shoulder at her, half inviting, half contemptuous and cunning. So she went, with her great startled eyes glowing, her gun under her arm, along the wood edge. Meanwhile the night fell, and a great moon rose above the pine trees.Gradually March seems to be in a state of _____.

复合题Passage AIt can be shown in facts and figures that cycling is thecheapest, most convenient, and most environmentallydesirable form of transport in towns, but such coldcalculations do not mean much on a frosty winter morning.The real appeal of cycling is that it is so enjoyable. Ithas none of the difficulties and tensions of other ways oftravelling so you are more cheerful after a ride, eventhough the rush hour.The first thing a non-cyclist says to you is “But isn’ tit terribly dangerous?” It would be foolish to deny thedanger of sharing the road with motor vehicles and it mustbe admitted that there are an alarming number of accidentsinvolving cyclists. However, although police recordsindicate that the car driver is often to blame, the answerlies with the cyclists. It is possible to ride in such away as to reduce risks to a minimum.If you decide to join the thousands in Britain who are nowreturning to cycling as a cheap, satisfying form oftransport, your first problem will be trying to decidewhat bike to buy. Here are three simple rules for buying abike:1)Always buy the best you can afford. Of course there hasto be a meeting point between what you would really likeand economic reality, but aim as high as you can and youwill get the benefit not only when you ride but also ifyou want to sell. Well-made bikes keep their value verywell. And don’ t forget to include in your calculationsthe fact that you’ ll begin saving money on fares andpetrol the minute you leave the shop.2) Get the best frame, the main structure of the bicycle,for your money as you can. Cheap brakes, wheels or gearscan easily be replaced by more expensive ones, but theframe sets the upper limit on any transformation. Youshould allow for the possibility that your cyclingambitions will grow with practice. When you begin, thefour miles to work may be the most you ever dream of, butafter a few months a Sunday ride into the country beginsto look more and more desirable. The best thing is to buya bike just a little bit better than you think you’ llneed, and then grow into it. Otherwise, try to get a modelthat can be improved.3) The fit is vital. Handlebars and seat height can beadjusted but you must get the right sized frame. On thewhole it is best to get the largest size you can manage.Frame sizes are measured in inches and the usual adultrange is from 21 inches to 25 inches, though extreme sizesoutside those measurements can be found. Some people sayif you take four inches off from your inside legmeasurement you will end up with the right size of bike.The basic principle though is that you should be able tostand with legs either side of the crossbar (the bar thatgoes from the handlebars to the seat) with both feetcomfortably flat on the ground.After you have been cycling for a few months the author suggests that you will _____.

复合题Directions: In this section there are reading passages followed by multiple-choice questions. Read the passages and then mark your answers on your answer sheet.Passage threeThe Welsh language has always been the ultimate marker of Welsh identity, but a generation ago it looked as if Welsh would go the way of Manx once widely spoken on the isle of Man but now extinct. Government financing and central planning, however, has helped reverse the decline of Welsh. Road signs and official public documents are written in both Welsh and English, and schoolchildren are required to learn both languages. Welsh is now one of the most successful of Europe’ s regional languages, spoken by more than a half million of the country’ s three million people.The revival of the language, particularly among young people, is part of a resurgence of national identity sweeping through this small, proud nation. Last month Wales marked the second anniversary of the opening of the National Assembly, the first parliament to be convened here since 1404. The idea behind devolution was to restore the balance within the union of nations making up the United Kingdom. With most of the people and wealth, England has always had bragging rights. The partial transfer of legislative powers from Westminster, implemented by Tony Blair, was designed to give the other members of the club-Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales — a bigger say and to counter centrifugal forces that seemed to threaten the very idea of the union.The Welsh showed little enthusiasm for devolution. Whereas the Scots voted overwhelmingly for a parliament, the vote for a Welsh assembly scraped through by less than one percent on a turnout of less than 25 percent. Its powers were proportionately limited. The Assembly can decide how money from Westminster or the European Union is spent. It cannot, unlike its counterpart in Edinburgh, enact laws. But now that it is here, the Welsh are growing to like their Assembly. Many people would like it to have more powers. Its importance as figurehead will grow with the opening in 2003, of a new debating chamber, one of many new buildings that are transforming Cardiff from a decaying seaport into a Baltimore-style waterfront city. Meanwhile a grant of nearly two million dollars from the European Union will tackle poverty. Wales is one of the poorest regions in Western Europe-only Spain, Portugal, and Greece have a lower standard of living.Newspapers and magazines are filled with stories about great Welsh men and women, boosting self-esteem. To familiar faces such as Dylan Thomas and Richard Burton have been added new icons such as Catherine Zeta-Jones, the movie star, and Bryn Terfel, the opera singer. Indigenous foods like salt marsh lamb are in vogue. And Wales now boasts a national airline. Awyr Cymru. Cymru, which means “land of compatriots” , is the Welsh name for Wales. The red dragon, the nation’ s symbol since the time of King Arthur, is everywhere-on T-shirts, rugby jerseys and even cell phone covers.“Until very recent times most Welsh people had this feeling of being second-class citizens, ” said Dyfan Jones, an 18-year-old student. It was a warm summer night, and I was sitting on the grass with a group of young people in Llanelli, an industrial town in the south, outside the rock music venue of the National Eisteddfod, Wales’ s annual cultural festival. The disused factory in front of us echoed to the sounds of new Welsh bands.“There was almost a genetic tendency for lack of confidence” , Dyfan continued. Equally comfortable in his Welshness as in his membership in the English-speaking, global youth culture and the new federal Europe, Dyfan, like the rest of his generation, is growing up with a sense of possibility unimaginable ten years ago. “We used to think. We can’ t do anything, we’ re only Welsh. Now I think that’ s changing. ”

复合题WHY SHOULD anyone buy the latest volume in the ever- expanding Dictionary of National Biography? I do not mean that it is bad, as the reviewers will agree.But it will cost you 65 pounds. And have you got the rest of volumes? You need the basic 22 plus the largely decennial supplements to bring the total to 31. Of course, it will be answered, public and academic libraries will want the new volume. After all, it adds 1, 068 lives of people who escaped the net of the original compilers. Yet in 10 year’ s time a revised version of the whole caboodle, called the New Dictionary of National Biography, will be published. Its editor, Professor Colin Matthew, tells me that he will have room for about 50, 000 lives, some 13, 000 more than in the current DNB. This rather puts the 1, 068 in Missing Persons in the shade.When Dr. Nicholls wrote to The Spectator in 1989 asking for name of people whom readers had looked up in the DNB and had been disappointed not to find, she says that she received some 100, 000 suggestions. (Well, she had written to other quality newspapers’ too. ) As soon as the committee had whittled the numbers down, the professional problems of an editor began. Contributors didn’ t file copy on time; some who did sent too much: 50, 000 words instead of 500 is a record, according to Dr. Nicholls. There remains the dinner-party game of who’ s in, who’ s out. That is a game that the reviewers have played and will continue to play. Criminals were my initial worry. After all, the original edition of the DNB boasted: Malefactors whose crimes excite a permanent interest have received hardly less attention than benefactors. Mr. John Gross clearly had similar anxieties, for he complains that, while the murderer Christie is in, Crippen is out. One might say in reply that the injustice of the hanging of Evans instead of Christie was a force in the repeal of capital punishment in Britain, as Ludovie Kennedy (the author of Christies entry in Missing Persons) notes. But then Crippen was reputed as the first murderer to be caught by telegraphy (he had tried to escape by ship to America) .It is surprising to find Max Miller excluded when really not yew memorable names get in. There has been a conscious effort to put in artists and architects from the Middle Ages. About their lives not much is always known.Of Hugo of Bury St Edmunds, a 12th-century illuminator whose dates of birth and death are not recorded, his biographer comments: “Whether or not Hugo was a wall- painter, the records of his activities as carver and manuscript painter attest to his versatility. ” Then there had to be more women, too (12 per cent, against the original DBN’ s 3) , such as Roy Strong’ s subject, the Tudor painter Levina Teerlinc, of whom he remarks: ” Her most characteristic feature is a head attached to a too small, spindly body. Her technique remained awkward, thin and often cursory. ” Doesn’ t seem to qualify her as a memorable artist? Yet it may be better than the record of the original DNB, which included lives of people who never existed (such as Merlin) and even managed to give thanks to J. W. Clerke as a contributor, though, as a later edition admits in a shamefaced footnote, ” except for the entry in the List of Contributors there is no trace of J. W. Clerke” .Crippen was absent from the DNB _____.

复合题Will there ever be another Einstein? This is theundercurrent of conversation at Einstein memorial meetingsthroughout the year. A new Einstein will emerge,scientists say. But it may take a long time. After all,more than 200 years separated Einstein from his nearestrival, Isaac Newton.Many physicists say the next Einstein hasnt been bornyet, or is a baby now. Thats because the quest for aunified theory that would account for all the forces ofnature has pushed current mathematics to its limits. Newmath must be created before the problem can be solved.But researchers say there are many other factors workingagainst another Einstein emerging anytime soon.For one thing, physics is a much different field today. InEinsteins day, there were only a few thousand physicistsworldwide, and the theoreticians who could intellectuallyrival Einstein probably would fit into a streetcar withseats to spare.Education is different, too. One crucial aspect ofEinsteins training that is overlooked is the years ofphilosophy he read as a teenager—Kant, Schopenhauer andSpinoza, among others. It taught him how to thinkindependently and abstractly about space and time, and itwasnt long before he became a philosopher himself.“The independence created by philosophical insight is—inmy opinion—the mark of distinction between a mere artisan(工匠) or specialist and a real seeker after truth, ”Einstein wrote in 1944.And he was an accomplished musician. The interplay betweenmusic and math is well known. Einstein would furiouslyplay his violin as a way to think through a knotty physicsproblem.Today, universities have produced millions of physicists.There arent many jobs in science for them, so they go toWall Street and Silicon Valley to apply their analyticalskills to more practical—and rewarding—efforts.“Maybe there is an Einstein out there today, ” saidColumbia University physicist Brian Greene, “but it wouldbe a lot harder for him to be heard. ”Especially considering what Einstein was proposing.“The actual fabric of space and time curving? My God,what an idea! ” Greene said at a recent gathering at theAspen Institute. “It takes a certain type of person whowill bang his head against the wall because you believeyoull find the solution. ”Perhaps the best examples are the five scientific papersEinstein wrote in his “miracle year” of 1905. These“thought experiments” were pages of calculations signedand submitted to the prestigious journal Annalen derPhysik by a virtual unknown. There were no footnotes orcitations.What might happen to such a submission today?“We all get papers like those in the mail, ” Greene said.“We put them in the junk file. ”Did Einstein become famous when he submitted his papers in 1905?