复合题Passage AIt can be shown in facts and figures that cycling is thecheapest, most convenient, and most environmentallydesirable form of transport in towns, but such coldcalculations do not mean much on a frosty winter morning.The real appeal of cycling is that it is so enjoyable. Ithas none of the difficulties and tensions of other ways oftravelling so you are more cheerful after a ride, eventhough the rush hour.The first thing a non-cyclist says to you is “But isn’ tit terribly dangerous?” It would be foolish to deny thedanger of sharing the road with motor vehicles and it mustbe admitted that there are an alarming number of accidentsinvolving cyclists. However, although police recordsindicate that the car driver is often to blame, the answerlies with the cyclists. It is possible to ride in such away as to reduce risks to a minimum.If you decide to join the thousands in Britain who are nowreturning to cycling as a cheap, satisfying form oftransport, your first problem will be trying to decidewhat bike to buy. Here are three simple rules for buying abike:1)Always buy the best you can afford. Of course there hasto be a meeting point between what you would really likeand economic reality, but aim as high as you can and youwill get the benefit not only when you ride but also ifyou want to sell. Well-made bikes keep their value verywell. And don’ t forget to include in your calculationsthe fact that you’ ll begin saving money on fares andpetrol the minute you leave the shop.2) Get the best frame, the main structure of the bicycle,for your money as you can. Cheap brakes, wheels or gearscan easily be replaced by more expensive ones, but theframe sets the upper limit on any transformation. Youshould allow for the possibility that your cyclingambitions will grow with practice. When you begin, thefour miles to work may be the most you ever dream of, butafter a few months a Sunday ride into the country beginsto look more and more desirable. The best thing is to buya bike just a little bit better than you think you’ llneed, and then grow into it. Otherwise, try to get a modelthat can be improved.3) The fit is vital. Handlebars and seat height can beadjusted but you must get the right sized frame. On thewhole it is best to get the largest size you can manage.Frame sizes are measured in inches and the usual adultrange is from 21 inches to 25 inches, though extreme sizesoutside those measurements can be found. Some people sayif you take four inches off from your inside legmeasurement you will end up with the right size of bike.The basic principle though is that you should be able tostand with legs either side of the crossbar (the bar thatgoes from the handlebars to the seat) with both feetcomfortably flat on the ground.The author thinks that the main attraction of cycling is _____.

复合题ProtestsattheuseofanimalsinresearchhavetakenanewandfearfulcharacterinBritainwiththeattemptedmurderoftwoBritishscientistsbytheterroristtechniqueofthepre-plantedcar-bomb.Theresearchcommunitywillrightlybealarmedatthesedevelopments,whichhavetwoobjectives:toarousepublicattentionandtofrightenpeopleworkinginresearchwithanimals.Thefirstneedisthateverythingshouldbedonetoidentifythoseresponsibleforthecrimesandtoputthemontrail.TheDefenseResearchSocietyhastakenthepracticalstepofofferingarewardof10,000poundsforinformationleadingtothoseresponsible,butpastexperienceisnotencouraging.Peopleareunlikelytobetemptedbysuchoffers.Theprofessionalpolicewillsimilarlybeconfrontedbytheusualproblemoffindinganeedleinahaystack.ThatiswhytheintellectualcommunityinBritainandelsewheremustactmorevigorouslyinitsowndefense.Thereareseveralstepsthatcanbetaken,ofwhichthechiefoneistodemandofalltheorganizationsthatexistwiththedeclaredobjectivesofsafeguardingtheinterestsofanimalsthattheyshoulddeclareclearlywheretheystandonviolencetowardspeople.Anditwillnotbeenoughforthechairmenandchairwomenoftheseorganizationstoutterplacatorystatementsonbehalfofalltheirmembers.Thesepeopleshouldalsoundertakethatitwillbeatestofcontinuingmembershipintheirorganizationsthatmembersandwouldbemembersshoulddeclarethattheywilltakenopartinactsofviolenceagainsthumanbeings.Evensuchundertakingswouldnotbefullyeffective:people,afterall,canlie.Butatleasttheywoulddistinguishtheorganizationsentitledtoacontinuingvoiceinthedialoguewiththeresearchcommunityabouttherightsofanimalsinresearchfromtheorganizationsthatdeservenosay.

复合题Passage BDo mobile phones cause explosions at petrol stations? That question has just been exhaustively answered by Adam Burgess, a researcher at the University of Kent, in England. Oddly, however, Dr. Burgess is not a physicist, but a sociologist. For the concern rests not on scientific evidence of any danger, but is instead the result of sociological factors: it is an urban myth, supported and propagated by official sources, but no less a myth for that. Dr. Burgess presented his findings this week at the annual conference of the British Sociological Association.Mobile phones started to become widespread in the late 1980s, when the oil industry was in the middle of a concerted safety drive, Dr. Burgess notes. This was, in large part, a response to the Piper Alpha disaster in 1988, when 167 people died in an explosion on an oil platform off the Scottish coast. The safety drive did not apply merely to offshore operations: employees at some British oil-company offices are now required to use handrails while walking up and down stairs, for example. So nobody questioned the precautionary ban on the use of mobile phones at petrol stations. The worry was that an electrical spark might ignite explosive fumes.By the late 1990s, however, phone makers having conducted their own research realized that there was no danger of phones causing explosions since they could not generate the required sparks. But it was too late. The myth had taken hold. One problem, says Dr. Burgess, is that the number of petrol-station fires increased in the late 1990s, just as mobile phones were proliferating.Richard Coates, BP’ s fire-safety adviser, investigated many of the 243 such fires that occurred around the world between 1993 and 2004. He concluded that most were indeed caused by sparks igniting petrol vapour, but the sparks themselves were the result of static electricity, not electrical equipment. Most drivers will have experienced a mild electric shock when climbing out of their vehicles. It is caused by friction between driver and seat, with the result that both end up electrically charged. When the driver touches the metal frame of the vehicle, the result is sometimes a spark.A further complication was the rise of the internet, where hoax memos, many claiming to originate from oil companies, warned of the danger of using mobile phones in petrol stations. Such memos generally explain static fires quite accurately, but mistakenly attribute them to mobile phones. Official denials, says Dr. Burgess, simply inflame the suspicions of conspiracy theorists.Despite the lack of evidence that mobile phones can cause explosions, bans remain in place around the world, though the rules vary widely. For Dr. Burgess, such concerns are part of a broader pattern of unease about mobile phones. There is a curious discrepancy, he notes, between the way that such phones have been indispensable, and the fact that they are also vaguely considered to be dangerous. The safety of mobile phones would appear to be not so much the province of the hard science of physics, as of the soft science of sociology.According to the expert, why is electrical equipment not the cause of explosions at petrol stations?

复合题Passage TwoPeople with intellectual disability form one of thelargest single disability groups in a community.Intellectual disability refers to a general slowness tolearn and function within society, and the identificationof intellectual disability is usually based on anassessment of a person’ s performance in a variety oftests. An individual’ s level of performance, as assessed,can change with time and circumstances. On occasions, anintellectually disabled person may perform better than atother times. Evidence for this inconsistent level ofperformance comes from modern research and practice whichhave shown that with skilled training and opportunity fordevelopment, people with intellectual disability have muchgreater potential for acquiring skills and forparticipation in community life than previously had beenthought possible.In many western societies, five categories of intellectualdisability have traditionally been used in order toindicate the perceived degree of difficulty an individualhas in learning. All five may occur in either children,adolescents or adults, and show as mild, moderate, severe,profound or multiple intellectual disability. However,undue reliance on such categories and the consequent“pigeonholing” of individuals into one of the fivecategories can result in failure to provide theopportunities for each person to develop.For the majority of intellectual disabilities, there is noidentifiable cause but there are some causes that are welldocumented. They include: brain damage at birth due tolack of oxygen-prolonged labor during childbirth; braindamage before birth due to factors such as rubella drug ordiet-related problems; damage after birth due to illnessessuch as encephalitis or accidents; hereditary defects inthe genes, abnormal chromosome count resulting in, forexample, Down Syndrome.Like everyone else, people with an intellectual disabilityneed a rewarding job, a satisfying place to live and agood social life. But they may need extra support toachieve these things. Good support services are based onthe principle of normalization-which means enabling peopleto be part of the community like everyone else. In turn,normalization needs to be well-integrated into thecommunity, in order to be effective. Some of the servicesneeded include assessment centers, training for employmentand support to keep jobs once they get them, residentialaccommodation that is homelike. For children, earlyeducation and school education appropriate to the child’ sneeds are essential. Without a strong community-basedsystem of care, the intellectually disabled run the riskof becoming a huge under class as in the United States,where thousands of intellectually disabled are homelessbecause of the American policy of deinstitutionalization.With the introduction of the intellectually disabled intocommunities, there is a need to promote awareness ofcommunication. Although many people may have littleexperience in talking with an intellectually disabledperson, and anticipate great difficulty in communication,there are common guidelines that can simplify theinteraction. Firstly, it is useful to remember that peoplewith disabilities have feeling sad can usually understandwhat is said, even though they sometimes may take longerto respond. Speaking in the same friendly manner as youwould to anyone else, and using straightforward languageand uncomplicated sentences, is also recommended. Beingprepared to wait a little longer for replies during aconversation with an intellectually disabled person, wouldundoubtedly benefit the exchange. Above all, it issuggested not to talk about the person with someone elsewithin their hearing. Ultimately, the idea is to encourageintellectually disabled people to do things forthemselves.

复合题The biggest problem facing Chile as it promotes itself asa tourist destination to be reckoned with, is that it isat the end of the earth. It is too far south to be aconvenient stop on the way to anywhere else and is muchfarther than a relatively cheap half-days flight awayfrom the big tourist markets, unlike Mexico, for example.Chile, therefore, has to fight hard to attract tourists,to convince travelers that it is worth coming halfwayround the world to visit. But it is succeeding, not onlyin existing markets like the USA and Western Europe but innew territories, in particular the Far East. Marketscloser to home, however, are not being forgotten. Morethan 50% of visitors to Chile still come from its nearestneighbor, Argentina, where the cost of living is muchhigher.Like all South American countries, Chile sees tourism as avaluable earner of foreign currency, although it has beenfar more serious than most in promoting its image abroad.Relatively stable politically within the region, it hasbenefited from the problems suffered in other areas. InPeru,guerrilla warfare in recent years has dealt a heavyblow to the tourist industry and fear of street crime inBrazil has reduced the attraction of Rio de Janeiro as adream destination for foreigners.More than 150, 000 people are directly involved in Chilestourist sector, an industry which earns the country morethan US $ 950 million each year. The state-run NationalTourist Service, in partnership with a number of privatecompanies, is currently running a worldwide campaign,taking part in trade fairs and international events toattract visitors to Chile.Chiles great strength as a tourist destination is itsgeographical diversity. From the parched Atacama Desert inthe north to the Antarctic snowfields of the south, it ismore than 5, 000 km long. With the Pacific on one side andthe Andean mountains on the other, Chile boasts naturalattractions. Its beaches are not up to Caribbean standardsbut resorts such as Vina del Mar are generally clean andun-spoilt and have a high standard of services.But the trump card is the Andes mountain range. There area number of excellent ski resorts within one hours driveof the capital, Santiago, and the national parks in thesouth are home to rare animal and plant species. The parksalready attract specialist visitors, includingmountaineers, who come to climb the technically difficultpeaks, and fishermen, lured by the salmon and trout in theregions rivers.However, infrastructural development in these areas islimited. The ski resorts do not have as many lifts astheir European counterparts and the poor quality of roadsin the south means that only the most determined travelerssee the best of the national parks.Air links between Chile and the rest of the world are, atpresent, relatively poor. While Chiles two largestairlines have extensive networks within South America,they operate only a small number of routes to the UnitedStates and Europe, while services to Asia are almost non-existent.Internal transport links are being improved and luxuryhotels are being built in one of its national parks. Noris development being restricted to the Andes. EasterIsland and Chiles Antarctic Territory are also on thelist of areas where the Government believes it can createtourist markets.But the rush to open hitherto inaccessible areas to masstourism is not being welcomed by everyone. Indigenous andenvironmental groups, including Greenpeace, say that manyparts of the Andes will suffer if they become over-developed. There is a genuine fear that areas of Chilewill suffer the cultural destruction witnessed in Mexicoand European resorts.The policy of opening up Antarctica to tourism is alsopolitically sensitive. Chile already has permanentsettlements on the ice and many people see the decision toallow tourists there as a political move, enhancingSantiagos territorial claim over part of Antarctica.The Chilean Government has promised to respect theenvironment as it seeks to bring tourism to these areas.But there are immense commercial pressures to exploit thecountrys tourism potential. The Government will have tomonitor developments closely if it is genuinely concernedin creating a balanced, controlled industry and if theprice of an increasingly lucrative tourist market is notgoing to mean the loss of many of Chiles natural riches.Where did many of Chile’ s tourists used to come from?

复合题ItisquiteafeattobeinvisiblewhileoccupyingsubstantialbuildingsincentralLondonflanktheRoyalAcademyofArts.Butthat’sjustwhattheLinnaeanSociety,theRoyalSocietyofChemistry,theGeologicalSocietyofLondon,theSocietyofAntiquariesofLondonandtheRoyalAstronomicalSocietymanagedtodofornearlyacentury.Then,in2004,HerMajesty’sGovernmentnotonlynoticedbutalsoquestionedtheirrighttoremainatBurlingtonHouse,asthecomplexiscalled.TotheLearnedSocietiesthismayhaveseemedabitterirony.In1857,thegovernmentofapreviousqueenhadbuiltBurlingtonHouseexpresslytohousethemall.Reverenceforsuchinstitutions,alongwiththevalueofrealestate,wasnotwhatithadbeeninVictoria’sday.Buttheirtermsofoccupancyremainedunchanged.WhentheymovedintoBurlingtonHouse,onlytheRoyalAcademy,runbysupposedlyimpracticalartists,askedforalease.Itwasgiven999yearsatapeppercornrent.TheSocietiesandtheirallegedlyhard-headedscientistmemberswereleaselessandrent-free.Asdecadespassed,keepingalowprofilemusthaveseemedasensibleidea.Indeed,by1920,somefellowsoftheSocietyofAntiquariesofLondon(SAL),thoughtitessential.Whena1919ActofParliamentmadeitillegaltobarwomenfromsuchsocietiesmerelybecauseoftheirgender,acommitteeofSALfellowspressedforimmediateaction:womenmustbeinvitedtobecomefellowsatonce.Thiswasnotinordertofightpreviouswrongs.Itwastoavoidcriticismandwithittheriskthatpeoplemightnoticethatnorentwasbeingpaid.Thedangeraverted,headsstayedbelowtheparapet.Butdangerreappearedin2004.WithreputedaimofClarifyingSAL’spresenceatBurlingtonHouse,thegovernmentbroughtasuitagainstit.RumorsweptthroughintellectualLondonthat,infact,thegovernmentwantedtoturftheSocietiesoutortogetafullmarketrent,whichwouldhaveamountedtomuchthesamething.Alarmedfeathersfromfiveaviariesofrarebirdswentflying.Now,threeyearslater,feathersaresmooth.Indeed,cooingcanbeheardoccasionallyfromBurlingtonHouse.CompromisesreachedwiththegovernmenthavinggiventheLearnedSocietiessecurityoftenureataffordablerents.Inreturn,theSocietieshavebegunintroducingthemselvestooneanotherandtothepublic.Theyhavecreateda“culturalcampus”inthecourtyardtosharescholarshipandconviviality—andreflecttheirnewappreciationthatthereisstrengthinnumbers,Earlierthisyear,theLinnaeanSocietyannounceditwasproducingadigitalarchiveofitspricelesscollectionsofspecimens,manuscriptsandlettersoftheworldfamousSwedishnaturalist,CarlLinnaeus,onthe300thanniversaryofhisbirth.TheSAL,also300thisyear,iscelebratingwithanine-monthseriesoflectures.OnSeptember26th,DavidStarkey,oneofthemosthigh-profileofits2300fellows,willtalkabout“TheAntiquarianEndeavor”atSt.James’sChurch,Piccadilly.OnNovember8thatHarvard,hometomanyofSAL’s100American-basedfellows,FelipeFernndes-Armestotackles“DonFrancisco’snose-piece:formingnewempiresinRenaissanceAmerica.”Thebiggestbirthdayeventisanexhibitionof150ofSAL’streasuresattheRoyalAcademyfromSeptember15thtoDecember2nd.AmongthesetreasuresisanoilonoakportraitofQueenMaryIpaintedbyHansEworthin1554andaglowing12th-centuryenamelcasketdesignedtoholdtheremainsofThomasBecket.Howgoodthatinvisibilityisathingofthepast.

复合题Self-esteemiswhatpeoplethinkaboutthemselves—whetherornottheyfeelvaluedandwhenfamilymembershaveself-respect,pride,andbeliefinthemselves,thishighself-esteemmakesitpossibletocopewiththeeverydayproblemsofgrowingup.Successfulparentbeginsbycommunicatingtochildrenthattheyarelovedfornootherreasonsthanjustbecausetheyexist,Throughtouchandtoneofvoiceparentstelltheirinfantswhetherornottheyarevalued,specialandloved,anditisthesemessagesthatformthebasisofthechild’sself-esteem.Whenchildrengrowupwithloveandaremadetofeellovabledespitetheirmistakesandfailures,theyareabletointeractwithothersinaresponsible,honestandlovingway.Ahealthyself-esteemisaresourceforcopingwhendifficultiesarise,makingiteasiertoseeaproblemastemporary,manageable,andsomethingfromwhichtheindividualcanemerge.If,however,childrengrowupwithoutloveandwithoutfeelingsofself-worth,theyfeelunlovableandworthlessandexpecttobecheated,takenadvantageofandlookeddownuponbyothers.Ultimatelytheiractionsinvitethistreatment,andtheirself-defeatingbehaviorturnsexpectationsintoreality.Theydonothavethepersonalresourcestohandleeverydayproblemsinahealthyway,andlifemaybeviewedasjustonecrisisafteranother.Withoutahealthyself-esteemtheymaycopebyactingoutproblemsratherthantalkingthemoutorbywithdrawingandremainingindifferenttowardsthemselvesandothers.Theseindividualsgrowuptoliveisolated,lonelylives,lackingtheabilitytogivethelovethattheyhaveneverreceived.Self-esteemisakindofenergy,andwhenitishigh,peoplefeelliketheycanhandleanything.Itiswhatonefeelswhenspecialthingsarehappeningoreverythingisgoinggreat.Awordofpraise,asmile,agoodgradeonareportcard,ordoingsomethingthatcreatespridewithinoneselfcancreatetheenergy.Whenfeelingsabouttheself-havebeenthreatenedandself-esteemislow,everythingbecomesmoreofaneffort.Itisdifficulttohear,see,orthinkclearly,andothersseemrude,inconsiderate,andrough.Theproblemisnotwithothers,itiswiththeself,butoftenitisnotuntilenergiesarebacktonormalthattherealproblemisrecognized.Childrenneedhelpunderstandingthattheirself-esteemandtheself-esteemofthosetheinteractwithhaveadirecteffectoneachoilier:Forexample,alifegirlcomeshomefromschoolandsays“Ineedloving,becausemyfeelingsgothurttoday.”Themotherrespondstochild’sneedtobeheldandloved.Ifinsteadthemothersaidshewastoobusytoholdthelittlegirl,theoutcomewouldhavebeendifferent.Theinfant’sself-esteemistotallydependentonfamilymembers,anditisnotuntilaboutthetimethechildentersschoolthatoutsideforcescontributetofeelingsabouttheself.Achildmustalsolearnthatamajorresourceforahealthyself-esteemcomesfromwithin.Someparentsraisetheirchildrentodependonexternalratherthaninternalreinforcementthroughpracticessuchasplayingforgoodgradesonreportcardsorexchangingspecialprivilegesforgoodbehavior.Thechildlearnstorelyonotherstomaintainahighself-esteemandisnotpreparedtoliveinaworldinwhichdesirablebehaviordoesnotautomaticallyproduce.atangiblerewardsuchatasmile,money,orspecialprivileges.Maintainingahealthyself-esteemisachallengethatcontinuesthroughoutlife.Onefamilyfoundthattheycouldhelpeachotheridentifypositiveattitudes.Oneeveningduringanelectricstormthefamilygatheredaroundthekitchentable,andeachpersonwrotedowntwothingsthattheylikedabouteachfamilymember.Thesepiecesofpaperwerefoldedandgiventotheappropriateperson,whoonebyoneopenedtheirspecialmessages.Thefatherlatercommented,“Itwasquiteanexperience,openingeachlittlepieceofpaperandreadingthemessage.Istillhavethosegifs,andwhenI’vehadareallybadday,IreadthroughthemandIalwayscomeawayfeelingbetter.”Thefoundationofhealthyfamilydependsontheabilityoftheparentstocommunicatemessagesoflove,trust,andself-worthtoeachchild.This is the basis on which self-esteem is built, and as the child grows, self-esteem is reflected in the way he or she interacts with others.

复合题For half a century an influential group of Western linguists, led by Noam Chomsky, have argued that language is an innate human faculty, the product of a “language organ’ ’ in the mind. Other prominent “innatists” include Steven Pinker, an evolutionary psychologist and author of “The Language Instinct” , and Derek Bickerton, a linguist at the University of Hawaii and developer of a “bioprogramme” theory of language. Innatists believe that all languages share fundamental features. And linguistic innatism is part of a wider debate about just how much of human nature is wired into the brain.Daniel Everett, a linguist at Bentley University in Massachusetts, disagrees on both innatism and the fundamental similarity of languages. He spent years learning tiny languages in forbidding jungle villages, experiences he recounted in his 2008 memoir, “Don’ t Sleep, There Are Snakes” . In his new book, “Language: The Cultural Tool” , Mr. Everett moves away from narrow linguistic anthropology to broad theory.He argues that language is not the product of a “language organ” but an extension of general intelligence.Instead of unfolding in the same way in Paris and Papua New Guinea, languages are crafted by their speakers to meet their needs. He cites the Pirahii, the Brazilian Amazonian group he has spent the longest time living with. There are no numbers beyond two in Pirahii because, Mr. Everett argues, they have no money, engage in little barter trade, do not store food for the future and do not think about the distant past. This “living for the moment” , which the Pirahii enjoy (they think Western life sounds dreadful) , shapes their language.That different cultures have different words is unsurprising. It is when these differences affect cognition (the Pirahii cannot do maths, for example) that things get interesting. But Mr. Everett’ s most controversial argument, and his biggest challenge to linguistic innatism, is about grammar.Mr. Chomsky has argued that “recursion” is the key feature of all human language. This is the embedding of smaller units inside bigger ones: a subordinate clause is a kind of recursion, embedding a sentence in a bigger one. Mr. Everett says that the Pirahii lack grammatical recursion, and that even if recursion is universal (Piraha use it in stories if not within sentences) , this does not prove the existence of the language organ. Information is naturally organized with smaller bits nesting inside larger ones. That nearly all humans would find this linguistically useful is little different than widely varying societies independently inventing the bow and arrow— it is simply useful, and no proof of an instinct. True instincts, like turtles making their way to the sea or ducklings bonding with their mothers, require no learning. Language does. Animals do not truly excel in their deployment of basic instincts, whereas some humans clearly use language much better than others.But Mr. Everett, in trying to reach a popular audience while making an argument aimed at professional linguists, makes some awkward compromises. He cites a paper by other researchers claiming to have found that there are no features that are common to all languages, an argument that is crucial to his thesis. But he does not give enough detail for the reader. Later he even contradicts himself, saying that all languages have nouns and verbs.He argues that differences between societies lead to profound differences between languages, but fails to drive the point home fully. The Wari people use the word “hole” or “vagina” as the ordinary word for “wife” . Could this be denigrating of women? Or, since the birth canal is the point of departure for human life, could it be a way of praising them? Mr. Everett is not sure. Or take Banawa, another Amazonian language, in which the default gender of an unknown person or mixed group of people is feminine, not masculine as in most languages. The Banawa also practice rigid gender segregation, even whipping young girls bloody after their first menstruation. Could the unusual gender-assignment of Banawa be a product of this gender-segregated Banawa society? “The only answer at present is, ‘Perhaps’ , ” he writes. Even the lack of grammatical recursion in Piraha, Mr. Everett’ s key piece of evidence that it is culture that creates language, cannot tell the whole tale. Similar tribal cultures have languages bristling with recursion.Mr. Everett thinks it possible that culture influences grammar, but he is not sure. He acknowledges that conjecture about what causes linguistic differences has been a staple of much irresponsible amateur linguistics. It is hard to work out where culture has affected language, where language affects culture and cognition (a hot topic of psycholinguistic research) , and where the differences are unrelated. Mr. Everett has taken a shot across the innatists’ bow, and an impressively modest and reasoned one given that Mr. Chomsky once called him a charlatan. His case is not wholly proven, but it deserves a serious reading, and a response beyond name-calling.

复合题InBritainarrangementsforinvitingandentertainingguestsataweddingareusuallytheresponsibilityofthebride’sfamily.Inmostcasesitismainlyfriendsandrelationsofbothfamilieswhoareinvitedbutwhenthebride’sfatherisbusinessmanofsomekind,theweddingreceptionmayprovideausefuloccasionforestablishingsocialconnectionswithclientsorcustomersandotherpeoplewhosegoodwillmaybeofadvantagetohim.Itis,however,thebride’smotherwhohasthejobofsendingouttheformalprintedinvitationcards.Inthecaseofachurchwedding,thevicarofeachparishinwhichthebrideandbridegroomliveisnormallyinformedaboutamonthinadvanceoftheceremonysothatanannouncementofthecomingweddingcanbemadeinchurchoneachofthreeSundaysbeforeittakesplace.Anyonewhomayknowofanexistingmarriageofeitherpartnerisorderedtogiveinformationaboutit,thoughthismeansofavoidingbigamymusthavebeenmoreeffectiveinthedayswhenpeoplemovedabouttheworldlessthantheydotoday.Oftenuptoahundredormorepeopleattendthereligiousserviceandthebrideusuallywearsthetraditionallongwhitedressandveil,whileherbridesmaids,whoareoftenchildren,wearlongdressesinattractivecolors.Thismayalsohappeninthecaseofacivilweddinginaregisterofficebutisprobablylessusual.Thereceptionwhichfollowsmaybeheldinarestaurant,alocalhallor,whentherearefewguests,inthebride’sownhome.Refreshmentsareprovided,aspecialicedwedding-cakeiscut(usuallytotheaccomplishmentofspeeches)anddistributedtotheguests,toastsaredrunkanddancingmayfollow.Atsomepointinthecelebrations,thebridegoesofftochangeintoeverydayclothesandthenleavesthepartywithherhusbandtogoontheirhoneymoon,thejourneytheywillmaketogether,ofteninromanticsurroundingsabroad.

复合题Thehigh-techrevolutionhasinspiredaseeminglyendlessstreamofnewandexcitingelectronicproductsthatwejustcan’tlivewithout.Infact,thedizzyingspeedoftechnologicalinnovationcanmakelastyear’smustthisyear’sjunk.Andthat’stheproblem.Theaveragelifespanofapersonalcomputerhasshrunktoaround19months—andthishasnothingtodowithworn-outmiceordamageddiskdrives.Simplyput,electronicproductscanbecomeobsoletebeforeyou’veevenfiguredouthowtheywork.Sowhathappenstoallthoseoldkeyboards,monitors,andCPUs?Mostarestashedawayintheatticorforgotteninacorporatewarehouse,takingupvaluablespace.Butmanyendupinlandfills,andthatiswherethetroublereallybegins.Computermonitorscancontainupto3.5kgofleadandcanactuallybeconsideredhazardouswasteoncethey”arenolongerinuse.Circuitboardsinelectronicproductscontaincadmium(镉),chromium(铬)andmercury,allofwhicharetoxicsubstancesthatcanleachintogroundwaterifleftinalandfill.Unfortunately,thisdisposalproblemisnotgoingtodisappearanytimesoon—infact,itisgrowingbytheminute.InJapanalone,consumersthrowawaysome20millionTVs,washingmachines,refrigeratorsandairconditionerseachyear.InEurope,6millionmetrictonsofelectricalandelectronicequipmentweregeneratedin1998alone,andthatvolumeisexpectedtoincreasethreetofivepercentperyear—whichmeansby2010itcouldnearlydouble.What’stobedonewithallthistechno-trash?Electronicsmanufacturersareworkinghardtoanswerthisquestion.TheEuropeanCommissionhasproposedadirectivethatwouldrequireallelectronicsmanufacturerstotakebackandproperlydisposeofallelectronicproducts,regardlessoftheirage.Thedetailsarestillbeingironedout,butsomeversionofthedirectivewillmostprobablybecomelawinthenextfewyears.SimilarlegislationisintheworkintheU.S.andhasalreadypassedinJapan.Asthecostsofsuchprogramscouldquicklybecomeprohibitive,companiesaresearchingfornewwaysoftacklingdisposalissuesbeforetheybecomeaproblem.Onewaytoreducewasteistoavoidthrowingthinginthefirstplace.Manycompaniesreusepartsfromoldproductsinnewmodels.Thisisnotcheating—itmakesbothenvironmentalandeconomicsense.

复合题Passage BOne of the qualities that most people admire in others is the willingness to admit one’ s mistakes. It is extremely hard sometimes to say a simple thing like “I was wrong about that, ” and it is even harder to say “I was wrong, and you were right about that. ”I had an experience recently with someone admitting to me that he had made a mistake fifteen years ago. He told me he had been the manager of a certain grocery store in the neighborhood where I grew up, and he asked me if I remembered the egg cartons. Then he related an incident and I began to remember vaguely the incident he was describing.I was about eight years old at the time, and I had gone into the store with my mother to do the weekly grocery shopping. On that particular day, I must have found my way to the dairy food department where the incident took place.There must have been a special sale on eggs that day because there was an impressive display of eggs in dozen and half-dozen cartons. The cartons were stacked three or four feet high. I must have stopped in front of a display to admire the stacks. Just then a woman came by pushing her grocery cart and knocked off the stacks of cartons. For some reasons, I decided it was up to me to put the display back together, so I went to work.The manager heard the noise and came rushing over to see what had happened. When he appeared, I was on my knees inspecting some of the cartons to see if any of the eggs were broken, but to him it looked as though I was the culprit. He severely reprimanded me and wanted me to pay for any broken eggs. I protested my innocence and tried to explain, but it did no good. Even though I quickly forgot all about the incident, apparently the manager did not.Which of the following can serve as the best title of the passage?

复合题Passage AMurovyovka Nature Park, a private nature reserve, is the result of the vision and determination of one man, Sergei Smirenski. The Moscow University Professor has gained the support of international funds as well as local officials, businessmen and collective farm.Thanks to his efforts, the agricultural project is also under way to create an experimental farm to teach local farmers how to farm without the traditionally heavy use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Two Wisconsin farmers, Don and Ellen Padley, spent last summer preparing land in Tanbovka district, where the park is located, and they will return this summer to plant it.Specialists from the University of Utah also came to study the local cattle industry, looking to develop possibilities for beef exports to Japan.Separately, 10 New Jersey school teachers will spend the summer in the district running summer camps for the local children that will stress field trips and lecture on the nature around them.These programs, particularly the agricultural project, are getting some funding support from the United States, including from the MacArthur Foundation, the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, and the US Agency for International Development. The Trust for Mutual Understanding and the Weeden Foundation are also supporting the International Crane Foundation’ s work in creating the park.The World Bank is funding a small project to study the possibilities for eco-tourism in the Amur basin region. Delta Dream Vacations, a Delta Airlines subsidiary, is looking into flights to Khabarovsk and Vladivostok for ecology tours, with some of the money going to support the zapovedniks [totally wild preserves used only for scientific research] in the region.But this money has also generated a jealous attempt by the local wildlife service to block the Murovyovka project.They said, “Give us their money, and we’ ll do better, ” Smirenski says. They went to the local court to get a court order to halt the contract. Although they were successful at that level, the Amur regional government, with encouragement from Moscow, has already moved to reverse the decision as illegal.“I don’ t pay attention to this negative side. ” Smirenski says in characteristic optimistic fashion. “I decided we should continue to create. ”Beyond Murovyovka, there are even vaster grasslands and wetlands in the Amur basin that are vital nesting areas for rare birds such as the eastern white stork, and the red-crowned, white-naped, and hooded cranes. A complex of 100, 000 hectares, for example, lies largely unprotected in Zhuravalini [literally “a place for cranes” ] downstream from Murovyovka. Creation of a national park, allowing for tourist use, has been proposed for this area.A key part of the conservation strategy is to gain the support of regional governments by getting them to see that such internationally backed nature projects can lead to business and other ties, particularly to countries like Japan and China. For example, the cranes that nest in Russia have been tracked by satellite to wintering grounds in Izumi, on Japan’ s southern Kyushu Island. This linkage has proved useful in bringing regional officials from both countries together.Last summer, 100 Japanese school children from the Tama region outside of Tokyo came to Khabarovsk on the Amur to experience the kind of untouched nature that has disappeared from Japan. As part of the exchange, the Mayor of Tama donated 26 second-hand fire trucks to his counterpart. “After this, the mayor of Khabarovsk said, ‘Now I will listen to you, about your birds and all your problems, ’ ” recounts Smirenski. “Now the officials understand what cranes mean to them. ”For what purpose will the summer camps in the area be designed?

复合题Directions: Please read the following passages and then answer IN COMPLETE SENTENCES the questions which follow each passage. Use only the information from the passage you have just read and write

复合题Passage AIt can be shown in facts and figures that cycling is thecheapest, most convenient, and most environmentallydesirable form of transport in towns, but such coldcalculations do not mean much on a frosty winter morning.The real appeal of cycling is that it is so enjoyable. Ithas none of the difficulties and tensions of other ways oftravelling so you are more cheerful after a ride, eventhough the rush hour.The first thing a non-cyclist says to you is “But isn’ tit terribly dangerous?” It would be foolish to deny thedanger of sharing the road with motor vehicles and it mustbe admitted that there are an alarming number of accidentsinvolving cyclists. However, although police recordsindicate that the car driver is often to blame, the answerlies with the cyclists. It is possible to ride in such away as to reduce risks to a minimum.If you decide to join the thousands in Britain who are nowreturning to cycling as a cheap, satisfying form oftransport, your first problem will be trying to decidewhat bike to buy. Here are three simple rules for buying abike:1)Always buy the best you can afford. Of course there hasto be a meeting point between what you would really likeand economic reality, but aim as high as you can and youwill get the benefit not only when you ride but also ifyou want to sell. Well-made bikes keep their value verywell. And don’ t forget to include in your calculationsthe fact that you’ ll begin saving money on fares andpetrol the minute you leave the shop.2) Get the best frame, the main structure of the bicycle,for your money as you can. Cheap brakes, wheels or gearscan easily be replaced by more expensive ones, but theframe sets the upper limit on any transformation. Youshould allow for the possibility that your cyclingambitions will grow with practice. When you begin, thefour miles to work may be the most you ever dream of, butafter a few months a Sunday ride into the country beginsto look more and more desirable. The best thing is to buya bike just a little bit better than you think you’ llneed, and then grow into it. Otherwise, try to get a modelthat can be improved.3) The fit is vital. Handlebars and seat height can beadjusted but you must get the right sized frame. On thewhole it is best to get the largest size you can manage.Frame sizes are measured in inches and the usual adultrange is from 21 inches to 25 inches, though extreme sizesoutside those measurements can be found. Some people sayif you take four inches off from your inside legmeasurement you will end up with the right size of bike.The basic principle though is that you should be able tostand with legs either side of the crossbar (the bar thatgoes from the handlebars to the seat) with both feetcomfortably flat on the ground.As regards road safety, the author thinks that _____.

复合题Direction: There are 2 passages in this part. Each passageis followed by some questions. For each of them there arefour choices marked A. B. C. and D. You should choose thebest answer and write it down on your Answer Sheet.Passage 2Mathematicians may spend hours just trying to figure out aline of equations. All the while, they feel dumb andinadequate. Then one day, these young mathematiciansbecome established, become professors, acquire secretariesand offices. They dont want to feel stupid anymore. Andthey stop doing great work.In a way, you cant really blame scientists for backingoff. Stumbling around in the dark can be dangerous. “Byits very nature, the edge of knowledge is at the same timethe edge of ignorance, ” is how one cosmologist put it.“Many who have visited it have been cut and bloodied bythe experience. ” All the more reason its so refreshingthat readers of science stories dont seem to mind a bitof confusion. Every Science writer I know has had theexperience of readers coming up to them any saying: “Gee,that was fascinating; I didnt understand it, but Ivebeen thinking about it all day. ” Readers often inquireabout books where they can read further on a subject, oreven primary sources.Editors, however, seem to absorb difficulty differently.If they dont understand something, they often think itcant be right—or that its not worth writing about.Either the writers arent being clear, or the scientistsdont know what theyre talking about. Why thedifference? May theory is that editors are not justordinary fork. They tend to be very accomplished people.Theyre used to being the smartest guys in the room. Soscience makes them feel uncomfortable. And because theycant bear to feel dumb, science coverage suffers.So what is it about science that makes them uneasy? Surelyit is more than the obvious fact that its hard tounderstand things that arent yet understood. In scienceit can be just as hard to understand what is understood.Relatively and quantum mechanics have been around fornearly a century, yet they remain confusing in some senseeven to those who understand these theories well. We knowtheyre correct because theyve been tested sothoroughly in so many ways. But they still dont makesense.On the other hand, what should they? The fact that we havelearned to understand what the universe was doing back toa nanosecond after its birth is literally unbelievable.But the universe doesnt care what we can or cannotbelieve. It doesnt speak our language, so theres noreason it should “make sense” . Thats why sciencedepends on evidence. Its essential to know not only whatscientists know, but also what they know they dont know.This is an unfamiliar concept to editors used to dealingwith politics or sports.For all these reasons and more, good science journalistsknow that if theyre not dealing with subject matter thatmakes them dizzy, theyre probably not doing their jobs.The best editors understand all this.

复合题In the place of the King, two chief executives were chosen annually by the whole body of citizens. These were known as praetors or leaders, but later received the title of consuls. The participation of a colleague in the exercise of supreme power and limitation of the tenure to one year prevented the chief magistrate from becoming autocratic. The character of the Senate was altered by the enrollment of the plebeian members, known as conscripti, and hence the official designation of the senators thereafter was patres conscripti (conscript fathers) . As yet, only patricians were eligible for the magistracies, and the discontent of the plebs led to a violent struggle between the two orders and the gradual removal of the social and political disabilities under which the plebs had labored.In 494 B. C. a secession of plebeian soldiers led to the institution of the tribune plebes, who were elected annually as protectors of the plebs; they had the power to veto the acts of patrician magistrates, and thus served as the leaders of the plebs in the struggles with the patricians. The appointment of the decemvirate, a commission of ten men, in 451 B. C. resulted in the drawing up of a famous code of laws. In 445 B. C. , under the Canuleian law, marriages between patricians and members of the plebs were declared legally valid. By the Licinuian- Sextian laws, passed in 367 B. C. , it was provided that one of the two consuls should thenceforth be plebeian. The other magistracies were gradually opened to the plebs: in 365 B. C. the dictatorship, an extraordinary magistracy, the incumbent of which was appointed in times of great danger; in 350 B. C. , the censorship; in 337 B. C. , the praetorship; and in 300 B. C. , the pontifical and augural colleges.These political changes gave rise to a new aristocracy, composed of patrician and wealthy plebeian families, and admission to the Senate became almost the hereditary privilege of these families. The Senate, which had originally possessed little administrative power, became a powerful governing body, dealing with matters of war and peace, foreign alliances, the founding of colonies, and the handling of the state finances. The rise of this new nobilitas brought to an end the struggles between the two orders, but the position of the poorer plebeian families was not improved, and the marked contrast between the conditions of the rich and the poor led to struggles in the later Republic between the aristocratic party and the popular Party.The external history of Rome during this period was chiefly military. Rome had acquired the leadership of Latium before the close of the regal period. Assisted by their allies, the Romans fought wars against the Etruscans, the Volscians, and the Aequians. The military policy of Rome became more aggressive in the 60 years between 449 and 390 B. C. The defeat of the Romans at Allia and the capture and burning of Rome by the Gauls under the leadership of the chieftain Brennus in 390 B. C. were great disasters, but their effect was temporary. The capture of the Etruscan city of Veii in 396 B. C. by the solider and statesman Marcus Furius Camillus spelled the beginning of the end of Etruscan independence. Other Etruscan cities hastened to make peace, and by the middle of the 4th B. C. all southern Etruria was kept in the check by Roman garrisons and the denationalized by an influx of Roman colonists. Vistories over the Volscians, the Latins, and the Hernicans gave Romans control of central Italy and brought them into conflict with the Samnites of southern Italy, who were defeated in a series of three wars, extending from 343 to 290 B. C. A powerful coalition was at this time formed against Rome, consisting of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls in the north, and of Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites in the south; this coalition endangered the power of Rome, but the northern confederacy was defeated in 283 B. C. and the southern states soon after.Which one is in the central Italy?

复合题In the place of the King, two chief executives were chosen annually by the whole body of citizens. These were known as praetors or leaders, but later received the title of consuls. The participation of a colleague in the exercise of supreme power and limitation of the tenure to one year prevented the chief magistrate from becoming autocratic. The character of the Senate was altered by the enrollment of the plebeian members, known as conscripti, and hence the official designation of the senators thereafter was patres conscripti (conscript fathers) . As yet, only patricians were eligible for the magistracies, and the discontent of the plebs led to a violent struggle between the two orders and the gradual removal of the social and political disabilities under which the plebs had labored.In 494 B. C. a secession of plebeian soldiers led to the institution of the tribune plebes, who were elected annually as protectors of the plebs; they had the power to veto the acts of patrician magistrates, and thus served as the leaders of the plebs in the struggles with the patricians. The appointment of the decemvirate, a commission of ten men, in 451 B. C. resulted in the drawing up of a famous code of laws. In 445 B. C. , under the Canuleian law, marriages between patricians and members of the plebs were declared legally valid. By the Licinuian- Sextian laws, passed in 367 B. C. , it was provided that one of the two consuls should thenceforth be plebeian. The other magistracies were gradually opened to the plebs: in 365 B. C. the dictatorship, an extraordinary magistracy, the incumbent of which was appointed in times of great danger; in 350 B. C. , the censorship; in 337 B. C. , the praetorship; and in 300 B. C. , the pontifical and augural colleges.These political changes gave rise to a new aristocracy, composed of patrician and wealthy plebeian families, and admission to the Senate became almost the hereditary privilege of these families. The Senate, which had originally possessed little administrative power, became a powerful governing body, dealing with matters of war and peace, foreign alliances, the founding of colonies, and the handling of the state finances. The rise of this new nobilitas brought to an end the struggles between the two orders, but the position of the poorer plebeian families was not improved, and the marked contrast between the conditions of the rich and the poor led to struggles in the later Republic between the aristocratic party and the popular Party.The external history of Rome during this period was chiefly military. Rome had acquired the leadership of Latium before the close of the regal period. Assisted by their allies, the Romans fought wars against the Etruscans, the Volscians, and the Aequians. The military policy of Rome became more aggressive in the 60 years between 449 and 390 B. C. The defeat of the Romans at Allia and the capture and burning of Rome by the Gauls under the leadership of the chieftain Brennus in 390 B. C. were great disasters, but their effect was temporary. The capture of the Etruscan city of Veii in 396 B. C. by the solider and statesman Marcus Furius Camillus spelled the beginning of the end of Etruscan independence. Other Etruscan cities hastened to make peace, and by the middle of the 4th B. C. all southern Etruria was kept in the check by Roman garrisons and the denationalized by an influx of Roman colonists. Vistories over the Volscians, the Latins, and the Hernicans gave Romans control of central Italy and brought them into conflict with the Samnites of southern Italy, who were defeated in a series of three wars, extending from 343 to 290 B. C. A powerful coalition was at this time formed against Rome, consisting of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls in the north, and of Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites in the south; this coalition endangered the power of Rome, but the northern confederacy was defeated in 283 B. C. and the southern states soon after.The political changes led to _____.

复合题Passage AThe Taming of Demon GoutGout is the aristocrat of diseases. Ancient philosophers and physicians attributed to high living, and it has often afflicted men of exceptional talent. Michelangelo suffered from gout, as did Galileo, Martin Luther, Samuel Johnson, Darwin, Sitting Bull, Theodore Roosevelt and, more recently, Cyrus Vance. Gout was called opprobrium medicorum—the physicians’ shame—because so little could be done to treat it. Victims faced excruciating pain, severe crippling and often death from kidney failure. But modem medicine has turned the demon gout into amicus medicorum—the physicians’ friend.The typical gout patient is a middle-aged man. Hobbling into the doctor’ s office, he complains of a severe throbbing pain in a joint. The disease usually strikes the foot, but it can also afflict the knee, ankle, elbow and hand. The spot is so sore, he says, that a bed sheet resting lightly on it, or even the wisp of a breeze, produces almost unbearable agony.One look at the red and swollen toe, hot and full of fluid, tells the physician that he is probably dealing with gout. To confirm the preliminary diagnosis, the doctor draws a sample of fluid from the inflamed spot. Using a microscope, he searches for thin crystals of uric acid, a natural by-product of metabolism that rises to abnormal levels in gout sufferers.Rheumatologists have learned just how the uric-acid crystals create the painful symptoms of gout. A tiny urate crystal, explains New York University’ s Dr. Gerald Weissman, lodges in a white blood cell near the joint. Eventually, the cell ruptures and dies, releasing toxic enzymes that cause inflammation and searing pain.Relief: The first stage of treatment is to relieve the acute symptoms. Doctors used to prescribe colchicine, an extract of the autumn crocus whose medicinal value was first discovered by the ancient Greeks. But colchicine has unpleasant side effects, including diarrhea and vomiting. So today, most physicians favor indomethacin, a potent pain killer that also reduces swelling and inflammation. Relief from the pain begins almost immediately.The second phase of treatment is prevention. Gout patients are usually put on a lifelong course of daily medication. Small doses of colchicine are given for up to a year, followed by one of two newer drugs: probenicid, which increases the excretion of uric acid from the body, or allopurinol, which inhibits production of uric acid. With these medications, many patients never experience a second attack.The latest research has punctured some of the popular myths about gout.Examples:—Overeating. For centuries, gout was blamed on rich food, and patients were kept on a strict diet. Gluttony cannot cause the disease, but eating certain foods can bring on an attack. Uric acid is produced by the breakdown of substances called purines, which are concentrated in organ meats, sardines, anchovies, scallops and other delicacies. Happily, with proper drugs, the gout victim need not curb his appetite. Advises Dr. Gerald Rodnan of the University of Pittsburgh: “Be merry and take your medicine. ”—Drinking. Alcohol does block the kidneys’ ability to excrete uric acid, but gout patients on medication may imbibe moderately without fear of an attack.—Talent. For mysterious reasons, gout seems to strike the eminent and successful in disproportionate numbers. Studies of soldiers and college students have demonstrated some correlation between high intelligence and high uric- acid levels. “The connection is beyond grandmothers’ tales, ” says Weissman, “but a lot of trivial explanations are possible. Maybe bright people eat more meat or don’ t urinate as much. ”Why does a doctor draw a quantity of fluid from a possible gout sufferer?

复合题Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. As master craft workers, they imparted the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production.The creation of a labor force that was accustomed to working in factories did not occur easily. Before the rise of the factory, artisans had worked within the home. Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior. Journeymen knew that if they perfected their skill, they could become respected master artisans with their own shops. Also, skilled artisans did not work by the clock, at a steady pace, but rather in bursts of intense labor alternating with more leisurely time.The factory changed that. Goods produced by factories were not as finished or elegant as those done by hand, and pride in craftsmanship gave way to the pressure to increase rates of productivity. The new methods of doing business involved a new and stricter sense of time. Factory life necessitated a more regimented schedule, where work began at the sound of a bell and workers kept machines going at a constant pace. At the same time, workers were required to discard old habits, for industrialism demanded a worker who was alert, dependable, and self-disciplined. Absenteeism and lateness hurt productivity and, since work was specialized, disrupted the regular factory routine, industrialization not only produced a fundamental change in the way work was organized; it transformed the very nature of work.The first generation to experience these changes did not adopt the new attitudes easily. The factory clock became the symbol of the new work rules. One mill worker who finally quit complained revealingly about “obedience to the ding-dong of the bell—just as though we are so many living machines.” With the loss of personal freedom also came the loss of standing in the community. Unlike artisan workshops in which apprentices worked closely with the masters supervising them, factories sharply separated workers from management. Few workers rose through the ranks to supervisory positions, and even fewer could achieve the artisan’s dream of setting up one’s own business. Even well-paid workers sensed their decline in status.In this newly emerging economic order, workers sometimes organized to protect their rights and traditional ways of life. Craft workers such as carpenters, printers, and tailors formed unions, and in 1834 individual unions came together in the National Trades’ Union. The labor movement gathered some momentum in the decade before the Panic of 1837, but in the depression that followed, labor’s strength collapsed. During hard times, few workers were willing to strike or engage in collective action. And skilled craft workers, who spearheaded the union movement, did not feel a particularly strong bond with semiskilled factory workers and unskilled laborers. More than a decade of agitation did finally bring a workday shortened to 10 hours to most industries by the 1850’s, and the courts also recognized workers’ right to strike, but these gains had little immediate impact.Workers were united in resenting the industrial system and their toss of status, but they were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender, conflicting religious perspectives, occupational differences, political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics. For them, the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunity but reminders of their loss of independence and a measure of control over their lives. As United States society became more specialized and differentiated, greater extremes of wealth began to appear. And as the new markets created fortunes for the few, the factory system lowered the wages of workers by dividing labor into smaller, less skilled tasks.

复合题Amongalltheabilitieswithwhichanindividualmaybeendowed,musicaltalentappearsearliestinlife.Veryyoungchildrencanexhibitmusicalprecocityfordifferentreasons.Somedevelopexceptionalskillasaresultofawell-designedinstructionalregime,suchastheSuzukimethodfortheviolin.Somehavethegoodfortunetobebornintoamusicalfamilyinahouseholdfilledwithmusic.Inanumberofinterestingcases,musicaltalentispartofanotherwisedisablingconditionsuchasautismormentalretardation.Amusicallygiftedchildhasaninborntalent;however,theextenttowhichthetalentisexpressedpubliclywilldependupontheenvironmentinwhichthechildlives.Musicallygiftedchildrenmasteratanearlyagetheprincipalelementsofmusic,includingpitchandrhythm.Pitch-ormelody-ismorecentralincertaincultures,forexample,inEasternsocietiesthatmakeuseoftinyquarter-toneintervals.Rhythm,soundsproducedatcertainauditoryfrequenciesandgroupedaccordingtoaprescribedsystem,isemphasizedinsub-SaharanAfrica,wheretherhythmicratioscanbeverycomplex.Allchildrenhavesomeaptitudeformakingmusic.Duringinfancy,normalchildrensingaswellasbabble,andtheycanproduceindividualsoundsandsoundpatterns.Infantsasyoungastwomonthscanmatchtheirmother’ssongsinpitch,loudness,andmelodicshape,andinfantsatfourmonthscanmatchrhythmicstructureaswell.Infantsareespeciallypredisposedtoacquirethesecoreaspectsofmusic,andtheycanalsoengageinsoundplaythatclearlyexhibitscreativity.Individualdifferencesbegintoemergeinyoungchildrenastheylearntosing.Somechildrencanmatchlargesegmentsofasongbytheageoftwoorthree.Manyotherscanonlyapproximatepitchatthisageandmaystillhavedifficultyinproducingaccuratemelodiesbytheageoffiveorsix.However,bythetimetheyreachschoolage,mostchildreninanyculturehaveaschemaofwhatasongshouldbelikeandcanproduceareasonablyaccurateimitationofthesongscommonlyheardintheirenvironment.Theearlyappearanceofsuperiormusicalabilityinsomechildrenprovidesevidencethatmusicaltalentmaybeaseparateanduniqueformofintelligence.Therearenumeroustalesofyoungartistswhohavearemarkable“ear”orextraordinarymemoryformusicandanaturalunderstandingofmusicalstructure.Inmanyofthesecases,thechildisaverageineveryotherwaybutdisplaysanexceptionalabilityinmusic.Eventhemostgiftedchild,however,takesabouttenyearstoachievethelevelsofperformanceorcompositionthatwouldconstitutemasteryofthemusicalsphere.Everygenerationinmusichistoryhashaditsfamousprodigies—individualswithexceptionalmusicalpowersthatemergeatayoungage.Intheeighteenthcentury,WolfangAmadeusMozartbegancomposingandperformingattheageofsix.Asachild,Mozartcouldplaythepianolikeanadult.Hehadperfectpitch,andatageninehewasalsoamasteroftheartofmodulation—transitionsfromonekeytoanother—whichbecameoneofthehallmarksofhisstyle.Bytheageofeleven,hehadcomposedthreesymphoniesand30othermajorworks.Mozart’swell-developedtalentwaspreservedintoadulthood.Unusualmusicalabilityisaregularcharacteristicofcertainanomaliessuchasautism.Inonecase,anautisticgirlwasabletoplay“HappyBirthday”inthestyleofvariouscomposers,includingMozart,Beethoven,Verdi,andSchubert.Whenthegirlwasthree,hermothercalledherbyplayingincompletemelodies,whichthechildwouldcompletewiththeappropriatetoneintheproperoctave.Fortheautisticchild,musicmaybetheprimarymodeofcommunication,andthechildmayclingtomusicbecauseitrepresentsahaveninaworldthatislargelyconfusingandfrightening.