复合题Urbanisation in MEDCsCauses of UrbanisationUrbanisation means an increase in the proportion of peopleliving in urban areas compared to rural areas. An urbanarea is a built-up area such as a town or city. A ruralarea is an area of countryside.As a country industrialises, the number of people livingin urban areas tends to increase. The UK and many otherMEDCs urbanised during the 18 th and 19 th centuries. Peoplemigrated from rural areas (due to the mechanisation infarming) to urban areas where there was employment in thenew factories. The area of cities known as the inner citydeveloped during this time as rows of terraced housingwere built for workers.Today the UK is a mostly urban society, with 90% of thepopulation living in towns or cities. On a global scale,urbanisation is taking place rapidly, particularly inLEDCs.Although the UK is an urban society, more and more peopleare choosing to live on the edge of urban areas — withmany relocating to the countryside. This is calledcounter-urbanisation.Problems of Urbanisation in the CBD—Traffic CongestionAs more people move to the edge of towns and cities,traffic congestion may get worse. Many people will drivetheir cars into the city centre to get to work.It is compounded by people being brought into city onlarge roads or motorways. These roads then link up withsmaller, older, narrower roads in the city centre. Thiscauses a bottleneck and congestion.Some cities have tried to manage this problem byintroducing traffic management schemes. These schemes mayinclude:·Park and ride schemes.·Cycle lanes.·Congestion charging schemes, such as those in Durham andLondon.·Car-pooling, as used in the USA, to encourage people toshare cars.·Low Emission Zones, as in London.Local councils have also tried to make the roads in urbanareas safer by introducing traffic calming, pedestrianzones, vehicle-exclusion zones and permit-only parkingschemes.Problems of Urbanisation in the Urban Rural Fringe-HousingDemandSocial and demographic changes are leading to a greaterdemand for housing. People are living longer, and choosingto marry later, and in recent years there has been a risein the number of single parent families. Added to this,the UK is experiencing immigration from other countries,e. g. from Poland which has recently joined the EU. Theresult is an ever-larger number of smaller households, allrequiring accommodation.However, building new, affordable homes in urban areas isdifficult. Land values are very high and land is in shortsupply:·Some developers are building on sites that have beenbuilt on before in the UK’ s inner cities. These arecalled brownfield sites. This has happened in many of theUK’ s inner cities.·Other developers are building homes on the edge of thecity on greenfield sites in the urban rural fringe. Landhere is cheaper but greenfield development can causeconflict with local people and create environmentalproblems.Sustainable CitiesMany people are working towards trying to make cities moresustainable. A sustainable city offers a good quality oflife to current residents but doesn’ t reduce theopportunities for future residents to enjoy.Key features of a sustainable city·Resources and services in the city are accessible toall.·Public transport is seen as a viable alternative tocars.·Public transport is safe and reliable.·Walking and cycling is safe.·Areas of open space are safe, accessible and enjoyable.·Wherever possible, renewable resources are used insteadof non-renewable resources.·Waste is seen as a resource and is recycled whereverpossible.·New homes are energy efficient.·There is access to affordable housing.·Community links are strong and communities work togetherto deal with issues such as crime and security.·Cultural and social amenities are accessible to all.·Inward investment is made to the CBD.A sustainable city will grow at a sustainable rate and useresources in a sustainable way.Think of the town or city you live in, or nearby.·Could it be more sustainable?·Do people walk, cycle or use public transport ratherthan cars?·Are there enough safe open spaces, services and culturalamenities for everyone?·Is there enough investment in the city centre?·Is there a strong sense of community?·Is waste recycled?·Is there affordable housing for everyone?·Are homes energy-efficient?·Do they use renewable energy?Can you explain the reason for traffic congestion in detail?

复合题Directions: In this sections there are three reading passages followed by a total of 10 multiple-choice questions. Read the passages and then write you answers on your answer sheet.Passage 3

复合题Passage BWe live in southern California growing grapes, a firstgeneration of vintners, our home adjacent to the vineyardsand the winery. Its a very pretty place, and in order toearn the money to realize our dream of making wine, weworked for many years in a business that demanded severalhousehold moves, an incredible amount of risk-taking andlong absences from my husband. When it was time, we tradedin our old life, cinched up our belts and began thecreation of the winery.We make small amounts of premium wine, and our lives aredictated by the rhythm of nature and the demands of theliving vines. The vines start sprouting tiny greentendrils in March and April, and the baby grapes begin toform in miniature, so perfect that they can be dipped ingold to form jewelry. The grapes swell and ripen in earlyfall, and when their sugar content is at the right level,they are harvested carefully by hand and crushed in smalllots. The wine is fermented and tended until it is readyto be bottled. The vineyards shed their leaves; the vinesare pruned and made ready for the dormant months—and thenext vintage.It sounds nice, doesnt it? Living in the country, ourdays were spent in the ancient routine of the vineyard;knowing that the course of our lives as vintners waschoreographed long ago and that if we practiceddiligently, our wine would be good and wed besuccessful. From the start we knew there was a price forthe privilege of becoming a winemaking family, connectedto the land and the caprices of nature.We work hard at something we love, we are slow to panicover the daily emergencies, and we are nimble at solvingproblems as they arise. Some hazards to completing asuccessful vintage are expected: rain just beforeharvesting that can cause mold; electricity unexpectedlyinterrupted during the cold fermentation of white wine candamage it, a delayed payment from a major client when themoney is needed.There are outside influences that disrupt production andtake patience, good will and perseverance. For example,the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms regulatesevery facet of the wine business. A winerys records areaudited as often as two or three times a year and everylabel—newly written for each years vintage—must beapproved.The greatest threat to the winery, and one that almostmade us lose heart came out of a lawyers imagination.Our little winery was served notice that we were named ina lawsuit accusing us of endangering the public health byusing lead foils on our bottles (it was the only materialused until recently) “without warning consumers of apossible risk. ” There it was, our winerys name listedwith the industrys giants.I must have asked a hundred times: “Who gets the money ifthe lawsuit is successful?” The answer was, and I neverwas able to assimilate it, the plaintiffs and theirlawyers who filed the suit! Since the lawsuit was broughtin on behalf of consumers, it seemed to me that consumersmust get something if it was proved that a lead foil wasdangerous to them. We were told one of the two consumerclaimants was an employee of the firm filing the suit!There are attorneys who focus their careers on lawsuitslike this. It is an immense danger to the smallbusinessman. Cash reserves can be used up in the blink ofan eye when in the company of lawyers. As long as itspossible for anyone to sue anybody for anything, we areall in danger. As long as the legal profession allowsmembers to practice law dishonorably and lawyers arecongratulated for winning big money in this way, wellall be plagued with a corruptible justice system.The grapes are harvested on a date that _____.

复合题Directions: In this sections there are three reading passages followed by a total of 10 multiple-choice questions. Read the passages and then write you answers on your answer sheet.Passage 1

复合题Passage AThe Taming of Demon GoutGout is the aristocrat of diseases. Ancient philosophers and physicians attributed to high living, and it has often afflicted men of exceptional talent. Michelangelo suffered from gout, as did Galileo, Martin Luther, Samuel Johnson, Darwin, Sitting Bull, Theodore Roosevelt and, more recently, Cyrus Vance. Gout was called opprobrium medicorum—the physicians’ shame—because so little could be done to treat it. Victims faced excruciating pain, severe crippling and often death from kidney failure. But modem medicine has turned the demon gout into amicus medicorum—the physicians’ friend.The typical gout patient is a middle-aged man. Hobbling into the doctor’ s office, he complains of a severe throbbing pain in a joint. The disease usually strikes the foot, but it can also afflict the knee, ankle, elbow and hand. The spot is so sore, he says, that a bed sheet resting lightly on it, or even the wisp of a breeze, produces almost unbearable agony.One look at the red and swollen toe, hot and full of fluid, tells the physician that he is probably dealing with gout. To confirm the preliminary diagnosis, the doctor draws a sample of fluid from the inflamed spot. Using a microscope, he searches for thin crystals of uric acid, a natural by-product of metabolism that rises to abnormal levels in gout sufferers.Rheumatologists have learned just how the uric-acid crystals create the painful symptoms of gout. A tiny urate crystal, explains New York University’ s Dr. Gerald Weissman, lodges in a white blood cell near the joint. Eventually, the cell ruptures and dies, releasing toxic enzymes that cause inflammation and searing pain.Relief: The first stage of treatment is to relieve the acute symptoms. Doctors used to prescribe colchicine, an extract of the autumn crocus whose medicinal value was first discovered by the ancient Greeks. But colchicine has unpleasant side effects, including diarrhea and vomiting. So today, most physicians favor indomethacin, a potent pain killer that also reduces swelling and inflammation. Relief from the pain begins almost immediately.The second phase of treatment is prevention. Gout patients are usually put on a lifelong course of daily medication. Small doses of colchicine are given for up to a year, followed by one of two newer drugs: probenicid, which increases the excretion of uric acid from the body, or allopurinol, which inhibits production of uric acid. With these medications, many patients never experience a second attack.The latest research has punctured some of the popular myths about gout.Examples:—Overeating. For centuries, gout was blamed on rich food, and patients were kept on a strict diet. Gluttony cannot cause the disease, but eating certain foods can bring on an attack. Uric acid is produced by the breakdown of substances called purines, which are concentrated in organ meats, sardines, anchovies, scallops and other delicacies. Happily, with proper drugs, the gout victim need not curb his appetite. Advises Dr. Gerald Rodnan of the University of Pittsburgh: “Be merry and take your medicine. ”—Drinking. Alcohol does block the kidneys’ ability to excrete uric acid, but gout patients on medication may imbibe moderately without fear of an attack.—Talent. For mysterious reasons, gout seems to strike the eminent and successful in disproportionate numbers. Studies of soldiers and college students have demonstrated some correlation between high intelligence and high uric- acid levels. “The connection is beyond grandmothers’ tales, ” says Weissman, “but a lot of trivial explanations are possible. Maybe bright people eat more meat or don’ t urinate as much. ”Today, what do physicians view gout as?

复合题Passage AThere are few more sobering online activities thanentering data into college-tuition calculators and gaspingas the Web spits back a six-figure sum. But economists sayfamilies about to go into debt to fund four years ofpartying, as well as studying, can console themselves withthe knowledge that college is an investment that, unlikemany bank stocks, should yield huge dividends.A 2008 study by two Harvard economists notes that the“labor-market premium to skill” —or the amount collegegraduates earned thats greater than what high-schoolgraduate earned—decreased for much of the 20th century,but has come back with a vengeance (报复性地) since the1980s. In 2005, the typical full-time year-round U. S.worker with a four-year college degree earned $50, 900, 62%more than the $31, 500 earned by a worker with only a high-school diploma.Theres no question that going to college is a smarteconomic choice. But a look at the strange variations intuition reveals that the choice about which college toattend doesnt come down merely to dollars and cents.Does going to Columbia University (tuition, room and board$49, 260 in 2007-08) yield a 40% greater return thanattending the University of Colorado at Boulder as an out-of-state student ($35, 542) ? Probably not. Does being anout-of-state student at the University of Colorado atBoulder yield twice the amount of income as being an in-state student ($17, 380) there? Not likely.No, in this consumerist age, most buyers arentevaluating college as an investment, but rather as aconsumer product—like a car or clothes or a house. Andwith such purchases, price is only one of many crucialfactors to consider.As with automobiles, consumers in todays collegemarketplace have vast choices, and people search for theone that gives them the most comfort and satisfaction inline with their budgets. This accounts for the willingnessof people to pay more for different types of experiences(such as attending a private liberal-arts college or goingto an out-of-state public school that has a great marine-biology program) . And just as two auto purchasers mightspend an equal amount of money on very different cars,college students (or, more accurately, their parents)often show a willingness to pay essentially the same pricefor vastly different products. So which is it? Is collegean investment product like a stock or a consumer productlike a car? In keeping with the automotive worldshottest consumer trend, maybe its best to characterizeit as a hybrid (混合动力汽车) ; an expensive consumerproduct that, over time, will pay rich dividends.Students who attend an in-state college or university can _____.

复合题Directions: In this section there are three passages followed by questions or unfinished statements, each with four suggested answers marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one that you think is the best answer mark your answers on your answer sheet.Passage threeA deal is a deal — except, apparently, when Entergy is involved. The company, a major energy supplier in New England, provoked justified outrage in Vermont last week when it announced it was reneging on a longstanding commitment to abide by the strict nuclear regulations.Instead, the company has done precisely what it had long promised it would not challenge the constitutionality of Vermont’ s rules in the federal court, as part of a desperate effort to keep its Vermont Yankee nuclear power plant running. It’ s a stunning move.The conflict has been surfacing since 2002, when the corporation bought Vermont’ s only nuclear power plant, an aging reactor in Vernon. As a condition of receiving state approval for the sale, the company agreed to seek permission from state regulators to operate past 2012． In 2006, the state went a step further, requiring that any extension of the plant’ s license be subject to Vermont legislature’ s approval. Then, too, the company went along.Either Entergy never really intended to live by those commitments, or it simply didn’ t foresee what would happen next. A string of accidents, including the partial collapse of a cooling tower in 207 and the discovery of an underground pipe system leakage, raised serious questions about both Vermont Yankee’ s safety and Entergy’ s management — especially after the company made misleading statements about the pipe. Enraged by Entergy’ s behavior, the Vermont Senate voted 26 to 4 last year against allowing an extension.Now the company is suddenly claiming that the 2002 agreement is invalid because of the 2006 legislation, and that only the federal government has regulatory power over nuclear issues. The legal issues in the case are obscure: whereas the Supreme Court has ruled that states do have some regulatory authority over nuclear power, legal scholars say that Vermont case will offer a precedent- setting test of how far those powers extend. Certainly, there are valid concerns about the patchwork regulations that could result if every state sets its own rules. But had Entergy kept its word, that debate would be beside the point.The company seems to have concluded that its reputation in Vermont is already so damaged that it has noting left to lose by going to war with the state. But there should be consequences. Permission to run a nuclear plant is a public trust. Entergy runs 11 other reactors in the United States, including Pilgrim Nuclear station in Plymouth. Pledging to run Pilgrim safely, the company has applied for federal permission to keep it open for another 20 years. But as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) reviews the company’ s application, it should keep it mind what promises from Entergy are worth.

复合题Directions: This section consists of a short passage. In this passage, there are altogether I0 mistakes, one in each numbered line. You may have to change a word, add a word or delete a word. Mark out the mistakes and put the corrections in the blanks provided. If you change a word, cross it out and write the correct word in the corresponding blank. If you add a word, put an insertion mark (A) in the right place and write the missing word in the blank. If you delete a word, cross it and put a slash (/) in the blank.Example:

复合题Theestimatesofthenumbersofhome-schooledchildrenvarywidely.TheU.S.DepartmentofEducationestimatesthereare250,000to35,000home-schooledchildreninthecountry.Home-schooladvocatesputthenumbermuchhigher-ataboutamillion.Manypublicschooladvocatestakeaharshattitudetowardhomeschoolers,perceivingtheiractionsastheultimateslapinthefaceforpubliceducationandadamagingmoveforthechildren.Homeschoolersharborfewkindwordsforpublicschools,chargingshortcomingsthatrangefromlackofreligiousperspectiveinthecurriculumtoaherdlikeapproachtoteachingchildren.Yet,aspublicschoolofficialsrealizetheystandlittletogainbyremaininghostiletothehome-schoolpopulation,andashomeschoolersrealizetheycanreapbenefitsfrompublicschools,thesehardlinesseemtobesofteningabit.Publicschoolershavemovedclosertotoleranceand,insomecases,evencooperation.SaysJohnMarshall,aneducationofficial,“Wearebecomingrelativelytolerantofhomeschoolers.“Theideais,‘Let’sgivethekidsaccesstopublicschoolsothey’llseeit’snotasterribleasthey’vebeentold,andthey’llwanttocomeback.”Perhaps,butdon’tcountonit,sayhome-schooladvocates.Homeschoolers,opposethesystembecausetheyhavestrongconvictionsthattheirapproachtoeducation-whetherfueledbyreligiousenthusiasmortheindividualchild’sinterestsandnaturalpace-isbest.“Thebulkofhomeschoolersjustwanttobeleftalone,”saysEngeCannon,associatedirectoroftheNationalCenterForHomeEducation.Shesayshomeschoolerschoosethatpathforavarietyofreasons,butreligionplaysarole85percentofthetime.ProfessorVanGalenbreakshomeschoolersintotwogroups.Somehomeschoolerswanttheirchildrentolearnnotonlytraditionalsubjectmatterbutalso“strictreligiousdoctrineandaconservativepoliticalandsocialperspective.Notincidentally,theyalsowanttheirchildrentolearn-bothintellectuallyandemotionally-thatthefamilyisthemostimportantinstitutioninsociety.”Otherhomeschoolerscontend“notsomuchthattheschoolsteachheresy,butthatschoolsteachwhatevertheyteachinappropriately,”VanGalenwrites.“Theseparentsarehighlyindependentandstriveto‘takeresponsibility’fortheirownliveswithinasocietythattheydefineasbureaucraticandinefficient.”

复合题Sowhatarebooksgoodfor?Mybestansweristhatbooksproduceknowledgebyencasingit.Bookstakeideasandsetthemdown,transformingthemthroughthelimitationsofspaceintothinkingusablebyothers.In1959,C.P.Snowthrewdownthechallengeof“twocultures,”thescientificandthehumanistic,pursuingtheirseparate,unconnectedliveswithindevelopedsocieties.Inthenew-mediaecologyofthe21stcentury,wemaynothaveclosedthatgap,butthetwoculturesofthecontemporaryworldarethecultureofdataandthecultureofnarrative.Narrativeisrarelycollective.Itisn’tinfinitelyexpandable.Narrativehasashapeandatemporality,anditends,justasourlivesdo.Bookstellstories.Scholarlybookstellscholarlystories.Storytellingiscentraltotheworkofthenarrative-drivendisciplines—thehumanitiesandthenon-quantitativesocialsciences—anditiscentraltothecommunicativepleasuresofreading.Evenargumentisaformofnarrative.Differentkindsofbooksare,ofcourse,goodfordifferentthings.Someshouldbecreatedonlyfordownloadandoccasionalaccess,asinthecaseofmostreferenceprojects,whichthesedaysareborndigitaloratleastgivendualpassports.Butscholarlywritingrequiresnarrativefortitude,onthepartofwriterandreader.ThereisnothingwikiaboutthelastsetofCambridgeUniversityPressmonographsIpurchased,andineachIencounteranindividualspeakingsubject.Eachsingle-authorbookisimmenselyparticular,astorytoldasonlyonestorytellercouldrecountit．Scholarshipisacollagist,buildingthenextroadmapofwhatweknowbookbybook.Storiesend,andthat,Ithink，isaverygoodthing.Asingleauthorialvoiceisakindofperformance,withanaudienceofoneatatime,andnoperformanceshouldoutstayitswelcome.Becauseabookmustend,itmusthaveashape,thearcofthoughtthatdemonstratesnotonlythewriter’scommandofherorhissubjectbutalsothatwriter’srespectforthereader.Abookisitsownsetofbookends.Evenifabookispublishedindigitalform，freedfromitsmateriality,thatshapingcaseofthecodex(古书的抄本)istheghostintheknowledge-machine.Wearethecaseforbooks.Ourbodiesholdthecapacitytogeneratethousandsofideas,perhapsevenacoupleoffull-lengthmonographs,andmaybeatradebookortwo.Ifwecangetthemright,booksareluminousversionsofourideas,boundbynarrativestructuresothatotherscanencounterthosebetter,smarterversionsofusonthepageorscreen.Booksmakethecaseforus,fortheidentityoftheindividualasanembodimentofthinkingintheworld.Theheartofwhatevenscholarsdoistheendlesstaskofmakingthatworldvisibleagainandagainbytellingstories,complicatedandsubtlestoriesthatreshapeusdailysothatnewformsofknowledgecanshineout.

复合题Directions: There are two passages in this section. Eachpassage is followed by five questions or incompletestatements. Read the passages carefully. Then answer thequestions or complete the statements in no more than 10words. Write your answers on your Answer Sheet. (2 pointsfor each question)Passage OneGeorge Osborne’ s abolition of national pay bargaining forteachers is a drastic policy. It sweeps away mandatory payscales and makes “cost of living” increasesdiscretionary for most teachers. At a time when growingnumbers of teachers are leaving the profession, this is anastonishing move.Osborne’ s idea is to allow headteachers to set pay basedon individual assessments—performance-related pay. Therationale for pay based on assessments, as opposed tocollective bargaining, is that the best workers will beattracted to workplaces where their hard work and skillswill be rewarded. They also respond better to what theiremployers consider important, thus improving performance.There are a number of problems with such schemes, whichoften result in their being short-lived. Having beenattempted previously in the 19th century, performance-related pay was reintroduced into schools in England firstin 1991, when it was applied to headteachers, then toteachers in a number of schools in 2001. When the policywas extended by New Labour, the experience of headteachersin administering the system was surveyed extensively bythe Teachers’ Incentive Pay Project at Exeter University.Most headteachers were opposed to the practice, feelingthat it made little difference to how teaching wasconducted, and were dyspeptic ‘about the narrow,numerical methods of measuring student progress.The main problem with performance-related pay, however, isthat it rarely works—even on its own terms. Acomprehensive review of the scholarly literature on thissubject from 2002 noted that among its disadvantages wasthe “neglect of unrewarded tasks” , as people cease doingparts of the job that can’ t be evaluated. It alsoundermined co-operation in necessarily co-operative roles,introducing competitiveness over goals and attainment. Itled to less openness about failure, since few would admitto screwing up if it cost them money. Finally, there wasthe cost of administration and the problem of demoralisingthose who weren’ t rewarded.This is the essence of the problem. Free market ideologyassumes that people are fundamentally driven bycompetition and rewards. This might work in a high-stresssales environment, where what matters is the number andvalue of deals. But most jobs don’ t work like that. Theyrequire complex systems of co-operation on qualitativeaspects of labour that can’ t be easily measured orattributed to any one worker. Other advantages foremployers which are not so widely advertised are theweakening of unions, the strengthening of managers and thepotential reduction of wages.Osborne’ s announcement comes after he was forced toconcede that there would not be regional pay awards forpublic sector workers, which would have accelerated the“north-south divide” . So the measure could be seen as analternative way of attacking the union and reducingteachers’ wages. But it also follows a neoliberaltradition with global reach. Everywhere that theneoliberal prospectus has been implemented, there has beenan attempt—strongly informed by public choice theory—tomodel public services on markets, using statisticalbenchmarks to suppress costs and create internalcompetition.For example, Wisconsin governor Scott Walker became thecentre of a furious wave of strikes, protests andoccupations when he outlawed collective bargaining rightsfor public sector workers. Walker’ s supporters insistedthat this policy would improve student performance. Thisis the last stand justification for such measures—ifyou’ re against us, you’ re against the children. Inresponse to Walker’ s measures, American liberals arguedthat far from helping students, union-busting statesseemed to do far worse by them—the five states thatoutlawed collective bargaining being among the poorestperformers in SAT scores. More rigorous analyses showeither that the abolition of collective bargaining leadsto no improvement at all for students or that it resultsin a significant loss of performance.One must tread very carefully in interpreting suchfigures, however. If jobs are rarely susceptible tostatistical assessments, because of their qualitative andcollective aspects, this is all the more true of learning.Learning is not a linear process in which studentsincrementally acquire facts and ideas, and nor are itsresults always measurable. Take reading and comprehension,for example. For any student to really grasp a text likeThe Owl and the Pussycat, for example, they must becapable of reflecting on the historical context in whichEdward Lear was writing, as well as the meaning of money,marriage, travel and so on. Such reflections do not easilyyield testable slabs of knowledge and it would be in thespirit of Grad grind to try to turn such a readingexperience into a method to measure the comprehension ofadjectives, nouns and verbs. So much the worse if ateacher’ s income depends on such trivia.Teaching and learning are complex, collective processeswhich are corroded rather than enabled by the neoliberaldemands for endless ranking and competition. Thegovernment’ s measures are good for neither teachers norstudents.

复合题Passage AThe Taming of Demon GoutGout is the aristocrat of diseases. Ancient philosophers and physicians attributed to high living, and it has often afflicted men of exceptional talent. Michelangelo suffered from gout, as did Galileo, Martin Luther, Samuel Johnson, Darwin, Sitting Bull, Theodore Roosevelt and, more recently, Cyrus Vance. Gout was called opprobrium medicorum—the physicians’ shame—because so little could be done to treat it. Victims faced excruciating pain, severe crippling and often death from kidney failure. But modem medicine has turned the demon gout into amicus medicorum—the physicians’ friend.The typical gout patient is a middle-aged man. Hobbling into the doctor’ s office, he complains of a severe throbbing pain in a joint. The disease usually strikes the foot, but it can also afflict the knee, ankle, elbow and hand. The spot is so sore, he says, that a bed sheet resting lightly on it, or even the wisp of a breeze, produces almost unbearable agony.One look at the red and swollen toe, hot and full of fluid, tells the physician that he is probably dealing with gout. To confirm the preliminary diagnosis, the doctor draws a sample of fluid from the inflamed spot. Using a microscope, he searches for thin crystals of uric acid, a natural by-product of metabolism that rises to abnormal levels in gout sufferers.Rheumatologists have learned just how the uric-acid crystals create the painful symptoms of gout. A tiny urate crystal, explains New York University’ s Dr. Gerald Weissman, lodges in a white blood cell near the joint. Eventually, the cell ruptures and dies, releasing toxic enzymes that cause inflammation and searing pain.Relief: The first stage of treatment is to relieve the acute symptoms. Doctors used to prescribe colchicine, an extract of the autumn crocus whose medicinal value was first discovered by the ancient Greeks. But colchicine has unpleasant side effects, including diarrhea and vomiting. So today, most physicians favor indomethacin, a potent pain killer that also reduces swelling and inflammation. Relief from the pain begins almost immediately.The second phase of treatment is prevention. Gout patients are usually put on a lifelong course of daily medication. Small doses of colchicine are given for up to a year, followed by one of two newer drugs: probenicid, which increases the excretion of uric acid from the body, or allopurinol, which inhibits production of uric acid. With these medications, many patients never experience a second attack.The latest research has punctured some of the popular myths about gout.Examples:—Overeating. For centuries, gout was blamed on rich food, and patients were kept on a strict diet. Gluttony cannot cause the disease, but eating certain foods can bring on an attack. Uric acid is produced by the breakdown of substances called purines, which are concentrated in organ meats, sardines, anchovies, scallops and other delicacies. Happily, with proper drugs, the gout victim need not curb his appetite. Advises Dr. Gerald Rodnan of the University of Pittsburgh: “Be merry and take your medicine. ”—Drinking. Alcohol does block the kidneys’ ability to excrete uric acid, but gout patients on medication may imbibe moderately without fear of an attack.—Talent. For mysterious reasons, gout seems to strike the eminent and successful in disproportionate numbers. Studies of soldiers and college students have demonstrated some correlation between high intelligence and high uric- acid levels. “The connection is beyond grandmothers’ tales, ” says Weissman, “but a lot of trivial explanations are possible. Maybe bright people eat more meat or don’ t urinate as much. ”What is the connection between intelligence and uric acid levels?

复合题A team of international researchers has found new evidencethat an endangered subspecies of chimpanzee is the sourceof the virus that causes acquired immune deficiencysyndrome (AIDS) in humans. Experts said that the findingcould lead to new treatments for AIDS and contribute tothe development of a vaccine against the disease.The research team said the chimp—a subspecies known asPan troglodytes native to west central Africa—carries asimian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that is closelyrelated to three strains of human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) , the virus that causes AIDS. One of these strains,HIV-1, has caused the vast majority of the estimated 30million HIV infections around the world.The researchers are uncertain when the chimp virus, calledSIVcpz (for simian immunodeficiency virus chimpanzee) ,first infected humans, although the oldest documented caseof HIV has been linked to a Bantu man who died in CentralAfrica in 1959. But they said the virus, which does notappear to harm the chimps, was most likely transmitted tohumans when hunters were exposed to chimp blood whilekilling and butchering the animals for food. Oncetransmitted to humans, the researchers believe the virusmutated into HIV-1.Team leader Beatrice Hahn, an AIDS researcher at theUniversity of Alabama in Birmingham, said the chimps haveprobably carried the virus for hundreds of thousands ofyears. Since humans have likely hunted the animals, Hahnsaid the virus may have jumped to humans on manyoccasions, but was not transmitted widely among humansuntil the 20 th century. Increased hunting of thechimpanzees, along with human migration to African citiesand changing sexual mores could help explain the recentepidemic, Hahn said.Scientists had long suspected that a nonhuman primate wasthe source of HIV-1. Earlier studies suggested that thesooty mangabey monkey, a native of West Africa, was thelikely source of HIV-2—a rarer form of the AIDS virusthat is transmitted less easily than HIV-1. However, onlya few samples of SIV strains exist, making it difficultfor researchers to confidently connect the strains to HIV-1.As part of their effort to discover the source of HIV-1,the research team studied the four known samples ofSIVcpz. They learned that three of the four samples camefrom chimps belonging to the subspecies P. t. troglodytes.The remaining sample came from another subspecies, Pantroglodytes schweinfurthii, which inhabits East Africa.The team then compared the SIVcpz strains to each otherand found that all three of the viruses from R t.troglodytes viruses strongly resembled all three HIV-1subgroups.Additional evidence that HIV-1 could be linked to P. t.troglodytes came when the researchers examined thechimpsnatural habitat. The researchers quicklydiscovered that the chimps live primarily in the WestAfrican nations of Cameroon, Central African Republic,Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Republic of the Congo, thegeographic region where HIV-1 was first identified.Upon closer study, the researchers learned that the chimpswere being killed in growing numbers of the so-called bushmeat trade, a trend assisted by the construction of newlogging roads in once remote forests. The researchers saidthat continued hunting of the animals meant that manypeople are still likely to be exposed to SIVcpz,increasing the risk of additional cross-speciestransmissions.Many AIDS researchers welcomed the teams finding, butsaid the new work had not proved the connectiondefinitely. Most of the doubts centered on the difficultyof drawing conclusions from such a small number of SIVcpzsamples. Because so few samples exist—all drawn fromchimps in captivity—researchers do not know how prevalentthe virus is among wild chimps, or how the virus istransmitted. Doubts are likely to persist until the courseof the virus is studied in chimps in the wild.Some health experts said the finding could have far-reaching implications for combating AIDS. Because SIVcpzdoes not cause the chimps to become ill, researchersbelieve that the animalsdisease-fighting immune systemmay have developed a defense against the virus. Sincechimps are 98 percent genetically similar to humans,learning more about the chimpsimmune systems could shedlight on newways to prevent and treat AIDS in humans.Discovering how the chimps immune system controls thevirus, for example, could help researchers develop avaccine that generates a similar immune-system response inhumans.Other experts noted that even if the finding does not helpin the fight against AIDS, it provides strong evidencethat dangerous viruses can be transmitted to humans fromwild animals. In some cases, the viruses may be harmlessto the host animals, but cause sickness and death whentransmitted to humans. As people increasingly venture intoremote animals habitats, some scientists believe there isa growing risk of new human exposures to previouslyunknown disease-causing microbes.In the meantime, widespread slaughter of the chimps couldmake further study of R t. troglodytes difficult. The wildchimp population, which exceeded 1 million animals in theearly 20th century, is now believed to number fewer than100, 000. “We cannot afford to lose these animals, eitherfrom the animals conservation point of view or a medicalinvestigation standpoint, ” said Hahn. “It is quitepossible that the chimpanzee, which has served as thesource of HIV-1, also holds the clues to its successfulcontrol. ”Why are many AIDS experts not completely satisfied with results of the study?

复合题Passage AIt can be shown in facts and figures that cycling is thecheapest, most convenient, and most environmentallydesirable form of transport in towns, but such coldcalculations do not mean much on a frosty winter morning.The real appeal of cycling is that it is so enjoyable. Ithas none of the difficulties and tensions of other ways oftravelling so you are more cheerful after a ride, eventhough the rush hour.The first thing a non-cyclist says to you is “But isn’ tit terribly dangerous?” It would be foolish to deny thedanger of sharing the road with motor vehicles and it mustbe admitted that there are an alarming number of accidentsinvolving cyclists. However, although police recordsindicate that the car driver is often to blame, the answerlies with the cyclists. It is possible to ride in such away as to reduce risks to a minimum.If you decide to join the thousands in Britain who are nowreturning to cycling as a cheap, satisfying form oftransport, your first problem will be trying to decidewhat bike to buy. Here are three simple rules for buying abike:1)Always buy the best you can afford. Of course there hasto be a meeting point between what you would really likeand economic reality, but aim as high as you can and youwill get the benefit not only when you ride but also ifyou want to sell. Well-made bikes keep their value verywell. And don’ t forget to include in your calculationsthe fact that you’ ll begin saving money on fares andpetrol the minute you leave the shop.2) Get the best frame, the main structure of the bicycle,for your money as you can. Cheap brakes, wheels or gearscan easily be replaced by more expensive ones, but theframe sets the upper limit on any transformation. Youshould allow for the possibility that your cyclingambitions will grow with practice. When you begin, thefour miles to work may be the most you ever dream of, butafter a few months a Sunday ride into the country beginsto look more and more desirable. The best thing is to buya bike just a little bit better than you think you’ llneed, and then grow into it. Otherwise, try to get a modelthat can be improved.3) The fit is vital. Handlebars and seat height can beadjusted but you must get the right sized frame. On thewhole it is best to get the largest size you can manage.Frame sizes are measured in inches and the usual adultrange is from 21 inches to 25 inches, though extreme sizesoutside those measurements can be found. Some people sayif you take four inches off from your inside legmeasurement you will end up with the right size of bike.The basic principle though is that you should be able tostand with legs either side of the crossbar (the bar thatgoes from the handlebars to the seat) with both feetcomfortably flat on the ground.People who are buying their first bicycle are advised to _____.

复合题Becausemostpeopledonotvolunteertopaytaxesorpolicetheirownfinancialaffairs,governmentscannotinfluenceeconomicactivitysimplybyaskingpeopletopolluteless,togivemoneytothepoor,ortobeinnovative.Toaccomplishthesethings,governmentshavetopasslaws.Sincetheearlytwentiethcentury,governmentsofcountrieswithadvancedindustrialorserviceeconomieshavebeenplayinganincreasingroleineconomics.Thiscanbeseeninthegrowthofgovernmenttaxationandspending,inthegrowingshareofnationalincomedevotedtoincome-supportpayments,andbytheenormousincreaseinthecontrolofeconomicactivity.Thelarge-scaleorganizationofbusiness,asseeninmassproductionanddistribution,hasledtotheformationoflarge-scaleorganizations—corporations,laborunions,andgovernmentstructures—thathavegrowninimportanceinthepastseveraldecades.Theirpresenceandgrowingdominancehaveshiftedcapitalisteconomiesawayfromtraditionalmarketforcesandtowardgovernmentadministrationofmarkets.IntheUnitedStates,governmentprovidesaframeworkoflawsfortheconductofeconomicactivitythatattempttomakeitservethepublicinterest.Forinstance,theindividualstatesandthefederalgovernmenthavepassedlawstoshieldinvestorsagainstfraud.Theselawsspecifywhatinformationhastobedisclosedtoprospectiveinvestorswhensharesofstocksorbondsareofferedforsales.Anotherimportantareaoflawconcernsthelaborforce,suchasregulationofworkhours,minimumwages,healthandsafetyconditions,childlaborandtherightsofworkerstoformunions,tostrike,todemonstratepeacefully,andtobargaincollectivelythroughrepresentativesoftheirownchoosing.Inothernations,thewaysingovernmentsinterveneintheireconomieshavevaried;however,governmentseverywheredealwithessentiallythesameissuesandparticipateineconomicactivity.Evengovernmentsthatarereluctanttoregulatecommercedirectlyhaveundertakenlarge-scaleprojectssuchashydroelectricandnuclearenergydevelopments,transportationnetworks,orexpansionofhealth,education,andotherpublicservice.

复合题Passage BDo mobile phones cause explosions at petrol stations? That question has just been exhaustively answered by Adam Burgess, a researcher at the University of Kent, in England. Oddly, however, Dr. Burgess is not a physicist, but a sociologist. For the concern rests not on scientific evidence of any danger, but is instead the result of sociological factors: it is an urban myth, supported and propagated by official sources, but no less a myth for that. Dr. Burgess presented his findings this week at the annual conference of the British Sociological Association.Mobile phones started to become widespread in the late 1980s, when the oil industry was in the middle of a concerted safety drive, Dr. Burgess notes. This was, in large part, a response to the Piper Alpha disaster in 1988, when 167 people died in an explosion on an oil platform off the Scottish coast. The safety drive did not apply merely to offshore operations: employees at some British oil-company offices are now required to use handrails while walking up and down stairs, for example. So nobody questioned the precautionary ban on the use of mobile phones at petrol stations. The worry was that an electrical spark might ignite explosive fumes.By the late 1990s, however, phone makers having conducted their own research realized that there was no danger of phones causing explosions since they could not generate the required sparks. But it was too late. The myth had taken hold. One problem, says Dr. Burgess, is that the number of petrol-station fires increased in the late 1990s, just as mobile phones were proliferating.Richard Coates, BP’ s fire-safety adviser, investigated many of the 243 such fires that occurred around the world between 1993 and 2004. He concluded that most were indeed caused by sparks igniting petrol vapour, but the sparks themselves were the result of static electricity, not electrical equipment. Most drivers will have experienced a mild electric shock when climbing out of their vehicles. It is caused by friction between driver and seat, with the result that both end up electrically charged. When the driver touches the metal frame of the vehicle, the result is sometimes a spark.A further complication was the rise of the internet, where hoax memos, many claiming to originate from oil companies, warned of the danger of using mobile phones in petrol stations. Such memos generally explain static fires quite accurately, but mistakenly attribute them to mobile phones. Official denials, says Dr. Burgess, simply inflame the suspicions of conspiracy theorists.Despite the lack of evidence that mobile phones can cause explosions, bans remain in place around the world, though the rules vary widely. For Dr. Burgess, such concerns are part of a broader pattern of unease about mobile phones. There is a curious discrepancy, he notes, between the way that such phones have been indispensable, and the fact that they are also vaguely considered to be dangerous. The safety of mobile phones would appear to be not so much the province of the hard science of physics, as of the soft science of sociology.What idea does the text intend to express?

复合题Passage BDavid Landes, author of The Wealth and Poverty of Nations:Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor, credits the worlds economic and social progress over the last thousand years to “Western civilization and its dissemination. ” The reason, he believes, is that Europeans invented systematic economic growth. First, science developed as an autonomous method of intellectual inquiry that successfully disengaged itself from the social constraints of organized religion and from the political constraints of centralized authority. Though European lacked a political center, its scholars benefited from the use of single vehicle of communication: Latin. This common tongue facilitated an adversarial discourse in which new ideas about the physical world could be tested, demonstrated, and then accepted across the continent and eventually across the world. Second, Landes espouses a generalized form of Max Webers thesis that the values of work, initiative, and in vestment made the difference for Europe. Despite his emphasis on science, Landes does not stress the nation of rationality as such.In his views, “what counts is work, thrift, honesty,patience, [and] tenacity. ” The only route to economic success for individuals or states is working hard, spending less than you earn, and investing the rest in productive capacity. This is his fundamental explanation of the problem posed by his books subtitle: “Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor. ” For historical reasons—an emphasis on private property, an experience of political pluralism, a temperate climate, and an urban style—Europeans have, on balance, followed those practices and therefore have prospered. Third, and perhaps most important, Europeans were learners. They “learned rather greedily, ” as Joel Mokyr put it in a review of Landes book. Even if Europeans possessed indigenous technologies that gave them an advantage (spectacles, for example) , as Landes believes they did, their most vital asset was the ability to assimilate knowledge from around the world and put it to use—as in borrowing the concept of zero and rediscovering Aristotles Logic from the Arabs and taking paper and gunpowder from the Chinese via the Muslim world. Lnades argues that a systematic resistance to learning from other cultures had become the greatest handicap of the Chinese by the 18th Century and remains the greatest handicap of Arab countries today.Although his analysis of European expansion is almost nonexistent, Landes doesnt argue that Europeans were beneficent bearers of civilization to benighted world. Rather, he relies on his own commonsense law: “When one group is strong enough to push another around and standsto gain by it, it will do so. ” In contrast to the new school of world historians, Landes believes that specific cultural values enabled technological advances that in turn made some Europeans strong enough to dominate people in other parts of the world. Europeans therefore proceeded to do so with great viciousness and cruelty. By focusing on their victimization in this process, Landes holds, some postcolonial states have wasted energy that could have been put into productive work and investment. If one could sum up Landess advice to these states in one sentence, it might be “Stop whining and get to work. ” This is particularly important, indeed hopeful, advice, he would argue, because success is not permanent. Advantages are not fixed, gains from trade are unequal, and different societies react differently to market signals. Therefore, not only is there hope for undeveloped countries, but developed countries have little cause to be complacent, because the current situation “will press hard” on them.The thrust of studies like Landess is to identify those distinctive features of European civilization that lie behind.Europes rise to power and the creation of modernity more generally. Other historians have placed a greater emphasis on such features as liberty, individualism, and Christianity. In a review essay, the art historian Craig Clunas listed some of the less well-known linkages that have been proposed between Western culture and modernity, including the propensities to think the quantitatively, enjoys pornography, and consumes sugar. All such proposals assume the fundamental aptness of the question: What elements of European civilization led to European success? It is a short leap from this assumption to outright triumphalism. The paradigmatic book of this school is, of course, The End of History and the Last Man, in which Francis Fukuyama argues that after the collapse of the Nazism and communism in the 20th Century, the only remaining model for human organization in the industrial and communications ages is a combination of market economics and limited, pluralist, democratic government.“This school” (para. 5) refers to people who _____.

复合题A team of international researchers has found new evidencethat an endangered subspecies of chimpanzee is the sourceof the virus that causes acquired immune deficiencysyndrome (AIDS) in humans. Experts said that the findingcould lead to new treatments for AIDS and contribute tothe development of a vaccine against the disease.The research team said the chimp—a subspecies known asPan troglodytes native to west central Africa—carries asimian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that is closelyrelated to three strains of human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) , the virus that causes AIDS. One of these strains,HIV-1, has caused the vast majority of the estimated 30million HIV infections around the world.The researchers are uncertain when the chimp virus, calledSIVcpz (for simian immunodeficiency virus chimpanzee) ,first infected humans, although the oldest documented caseof HIV has been linked to a Bantu man who died in CentralAfrica in 1959. But they said the virus, which does notappear to harm the chimps, was most likely transmitted tohumans when hunters were exposed to chimp blood whilekilling and butchering the animals for food. Oncetransmitted to humans, the researchers believe the virusmutated into HIV-1.Team leader Beatrice Hahn, an AIDS researcher at theUniversity of Alabama in Birmingham, said the chimps haveprobably carried the virus for hundreds of thousands ofyears. Since humans have likely hunted the animals, Hahnsaid the virus may have jumped to humans on manyoccasions, but was not transmitted widely among humansuntil the 20 th century. Increased hunting of thechimpanzees, along with human migration to African citiesand changing sexual mores could help explain the recentepidemic, Hahn said.Scientists had long suspected that a nonhuman primate wasthe source of HIV-1. Earlier studies suggested that thesooty mangabey monkey, a native of West Africa, was thelikely source of HIV-2—a rarer form of the AIDS virusthat is transmitted less easily than HIV-1. However, onlya few samples of SIV strains exist, making it difficultfor researchers to confidently connect the strains to HIV-1.As part of their effort to discover the source of HIV-1,the research team studied the four known samples ofSIVcpz. They learned that three of the four samples camefrom chimps belonging to the subspecies P. t. troglodytes.The remaining sample came from another subspecies, Pantroglodytes schweinfurthii, which inhabits East Africa.The team then compared the SIVcpz strains to each otherand found that all three of the viruses from R t.troglodytes viruses strongly resembled all three HIV-1subgroups.Additional evidence that HIV-1 could be linked to P. t.troglodytes came when the researchers examined thechimpsnatural habitat. The researchers quicklydiscovered that the chimps live primarily in the WestAfrican nations of Cameroon, Central African Republic,Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Republic of the Congo, thegeographic region where HIV-1 was first identified.Upon closer study, the researchers learned that the chimpswere being killed in growing numbers of the so-called bushmeat trade, a trend assisted by the construction of newlogging roads in once remote forests. The researchers saidthat continued hunting of the animals meant that manypeople are still likely to be exposed to SIVcpz,increasing the risk of additional cross-speciestransmissions.Many AIDS researchers welcomed the teams finding, butsaid the new work had not proved the connectiondefinitely. Most of the doubts centered on the difficultyof drawing conclusions from such a small number of SIVcpzsamples. Because so few samples exist—all drawn fromchimps in captivity—researchers do not know how prevalentthe virus is among wild chimps, or how the virus istransmitted. Doubts are likely to persist until the courseof the virus is studied in chimps in the wild.Some health experts said the finding could have far-reaching implications for combating AIDS. Because SIVcpzdoes not cause the chimps to become ill, researchersbelieve that the animalsdisease-fighting immune systemmay have developed a defense against the virus. Sincechimps are 98 percent genetically similar to humans,learning more about the chimpsimmune systems could shedlight on newways to prevent and treat AIDS in humans.Discovering how the chimps immune system controls thevirus, for example, could help researchers develop avaccine that generates a similar immune-system response inhumans.Other experts noted that even if the finding does not helpin the fight against AIDS, it provides strong evidencethat dangerous viruses can be transmitted to humans fromwild animals. In some cases, the viruses may be harmlessto the host animals, but cause sickness and death whentransmitted to humans. As people increasingly venture intoremote animals habitats, some scientists believe there isa growing risk of new human exposures to previouslyunknown disease-causing microbes.In the meantime, widespread slaughter of the chimps couldmake further study of R t. troglodytes difficult. The wildchimp population, which exceeded 1 million animals in theearly 20th century, is now believed to number fewer than100, 000. “We cannot afford to lose these animals, eitherfrom the animals conservation point of view or a medicalinvestigation standpoint, ” said Hahn. “It is quitepossible that the chimpanzee, which has served as thesource of HIV-1, also holds the clues to its successfulcontrol. ”According to Hahn, all the following increase the transmission of AIDS virus EXCEPT _____.

复合题Passage AAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, portraitureis, “a representation or delineation of a person,especially of the face, made by life, by drawing,painting, photography, engraving. . . a likeness. ” However,this simplistic definition disregards the complexities ofportraiture. Portraits are works of art that engage withideas of identity as they are perceived, represented, andunderstood in different times and places, rather thansimply aim to represent a likeness. These concepts ofidentity can encompass social hierarchy, gender, age,profession, and the character of the subject, among otherthings. Rather than being fixed, these features areexpressive of the expectations and circumstances of thetime when the portrait was made. It is impossible toreproduce the aspects of identity; it is only possible toevoke or suggest them. Consequently, even though portraitsrepresent individuals, it is generally conventional ortypical—rather than unique—qualities of subject that arestressed by the artist. Portrait art has also undergonesignificant shifts in artistic convention and practice.Despite the fact that the majority of portraits portraythe subject matter in some amount of verisimilitude, (anappearance of being true or real) , they are still theoutcome of prevailing artistic fashions and favoredstyles, techniques, and media.Therefore, portrait art is a vast art category whichprovides a wide range of engagements with social,psychological, and artistic practices and expectations.Since portraits are distinct from other genres or artcategories in the ways they are produced, the nature ofwhat they represent, and how they function as objects ofuse and display, they are worthy of separate study. First,during their production, portraits require the presence ofa specific person, or an image of the individual to berepresented, in almost all cases. In the majority ofinstances, the production of portraiture has necessitatedsittings, which result in interaction between thesubject(s) and artist throughout the creation of the work.In certain instances, portrait artists depended on acombination of direct involvement with their subjects. Ifthe sitter is of high social standing or is occupied andunavailable to sit in the studio regularly, portraitistscould use photographs or sketches of their subject. InEurope, during the seventeenth and eighteenth century, thesitting time was sometimes decreased by focusing solely onthe head and using professional drapery painters to finishthe painting. For instance, Sir Peter Lily, the Englishartist, had a collection of poses in a pattern book thatenabled him to focus on the head and require fewersittings from his aristocratic patrons. Portrait painterscould be asked to present the likeness of individuals whowere deceased. In this sort of instance, photographs orprints of the subject could be reproduced. Theoretically,portraitists could work from impressions or memories whencreating a painting, but this is a rare occurrenceaccording to documented records. Nonetheless, whether thework is based on model sittings, copying a photograph orsketch, or using memory, the process of painting aportrait is closely linked with the implicit or explicitattendance of the model.Furthermore, portrait painting can be differentiated fromother artistic genres like landscape, still life, andhistory by its connection with appearance, or likeness. Assuch, the art of portrait painting got a reputation forimitation, or copying, instead of for artistic innovationor creativity; consequently it is sometimes viewed asbeing of a lower status than the other genres. Accordingto Renaissance art theory, (which prevailed until thestart of the nineteenth century) fine art was supposed torepresent idealized images, as well as to be original andcreative instead of to copy other works. Portraiture, incomparison, became linked with the level of a mechanicalexercise as opposed to a fine art. Michelangelos wellknown protest that he would not paint portraits becausethere were not enough ideally beautiful models is only oneexample of the dismissive attitude to portraiture thatpersisted among professional artist—even those who,ironically, made their living from portraiture. In thetime of modernism, during the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies, the attitude towards portraiture was critical.Even so, artists from around the globe kept paintingportraits in spite of their theoretical objections.Picasso, for instance, became renowned for cubist still-life painting early in his career, but some of his mosteffective early experiments in this new style were hisportraits of art dealers.Portraiture grew to be regarded as a mechanical practice due to its association with which of thefollowing?

复合题You don’ t have to be Julian Assange, the man behind WikiLeaks, to think that governments have a nasty habit of abusing their powers of secrecy. Or that, whether governments are corrupt and malign or merely negligent and incompetent, then sunlight is often the best disinfectant. One of the jobs of journalism is to make a grubby nuisance of itself by ferreting out the establishment’ s half- truths and embarrassments. And one of the jobs of the courts is to police the press by protecting whistle- blowers while also punishing libel and treachery.But the most recent WikiLeaks dump of diplomatic cables has overturned that order in two ways. First by its sheer volume. When you have not just a handful of documents to release, but more than 250, 000 emails seemingly touching on every file in the State Department, however dusty, you discredit not just one government official or one policy, but an entire way of going about diplomacy.It is too soon to know what effect the leak’ s revelations will have. The newspapers have so far published the e- mails piecemeal, and a lot more are to come. Foreign- policy experts are right when they say they have learned little that is radically new. Revelations about the tireless nightlife of Italy’ s aging prime minister will surprise no one. Given that hundreds of thousands of people had access to the cables, the sensitive stuff will already be in the hands of many a spy service.But the experts also miss a larger point: they themselves are part of the elite inner-circle that WikiLeaks wants to break open so that every man can judge for himself. Perhaps shattering all those taboos might do some good. The public airing of Arab leaders’ fears of an Iranian bomb might shake others’ complacency about the issue.But any gains will come at a high cost. In a world of WikiLeaks, diplomacy would no longer be possible. The secrecy that WikiLeaks despises is vital to all organizations, including government…and especially in the realm of international relations. Those who pass information to American diplomats, out of self-interest, conviction or goodwill, will be less open now. Some of them, like the Iranian businessman fingered as a friend of America, could face reprisals.In the past, the rights and wrongs of all this could have been determined by public debate, the passage of some legislation and the courts. Not any longer. The second way in which WikiLeaks has overturned the old order is by being beyond jurisdiction.America can and will try to use its laws to protect its secrets. But even if it locks up Bradley Manning, the 23- year-old serviceman thought to be behind the leaks, and even if it captures Mr. Assange, the information is out, on a network of computers somewhere in cyberspace.In any case, there will be the other Mannings and other Assanges. You cannot uninvent the technology for copying a State Departments worth of cables and carting them pretty much anywhere. The only remedy is to manage secrets better. The damage that America’ s diplomatic service has suffered is partly the result of sloppy practices. It has now tightened access to the e-mails and the scope to copy them. Sensitive information will have to receive a higher classification.On reading diplomats’ dissembling, people may be tempted to sneer. In fact diplomacy’ s never-ending private conversation ultimately helps see off war and strife. That conversation will continue. Too many people have too much to gain for it to stop. But it will be less rich, less clear and therefore probably less useful. WikiLeaks claims to want to make the world a better place. It will probably do the reverse.