This review focuses on major contemporary empirical studies that examine both the physical and regulatory sides of climate risk. These studies explore how climate risk affects firms’ operating performance and leverag...This review focuses on major contemporary empirical studies that examine both the physical and regulatory sides of climate risk. These studies explore how climate risk affects firms’ operating performance and leverage, stock and bond valuation, cost of capital, and managerial behavior. We also discuss how the effect of climate risk on real estate markets depends on individuals’ beliefs about climate change. Furthermore, we summarize papers on climate risk activism and how firms can employ financial devices and technology to mitigate their climate risk. Finally, we make some recommendations for further research areas.展开更多
In accordance with the canonical sources of the right of legal claim,the targets of judicial review,and the intensity of judicial review intervention policies,lawsuits that directly and indirectly activate the functio...In accordance with the canonical sources of the right of legal claim,the targets of judicial review,and the intensity of judicial review intervention policies,lawsuits that directly and indirectly activate the function of human rights protection amid climate risks can be divided into the following categories:climate change lawsuits based on international human rights law,climate change lawsuits based on the domestic constitution,and judicial review of administrative procedures.Due to the singularity of the legal status and force of international human rights law,its“direct applicability”and“explanatory applicability”limit its function in protecting human rights;Climate change lawsuits based on domestic constitutions have the identification of basic right of claim,the judgment of basic rights and function,and the scope of state obligations as the judgment process.Factors such as the difficulty in right typification caused by the integration of climate law and interests,the expansion of discretionary and administrative power in legislation under the context of risk prevention,and the functional boundary of the judicial system cause the dysfunction of the dichotomous review standard of positive rights and negative rights.Procedural rights represent an important dimension of climate-related human rights.With the standardization of administrative procedures on addressing climate risks,the courts are gradually reinforcing decision-making authorities’obligation of due diligence through judicial review of risk decision-making procedures,thus indirectly guaranteeing the realization of tangible human rights.展开更多
The agricultural climate risk in the geographical transitional zones is very sensitive to climate change. Based on previous researches, this article established the cotton climate suitability model and the risk index ...The agricultural climate risk in the geographical transitional zones is very sensitive to climate change. Based on previous researches, this article established the cotton climate suitability model and the risk index to analyze the cotton climate risk degree in Henan Province. The result shows that, in the last 40 years, the cotton climate risk degree has a gradual increasing trend in which the precipitation plays a very important role, and the climate suitability and its deviation have different performances in the influence on the risk change in different phases; the increase rate of risk degree has significant regional and transitional characteristics, for example, from the eastern plain to the western mountains, the risk change rate becomes slower and slower, so the contrast between the central-southern Huang-Huai plain and the Funiu mountains is the most remarkable; and in the north-south direction, the contrast between the fast increase belt from the central-southern Huang-Huai plain to the middle Yellow River and the slow increase belt near the Yellow River is particularly remarkable, which is possibly the results of topographic and climatic transitional belt; and the risk change process also has obvious regional difference. For instance, abrupt change is an important characteristic in eastern Henan where this sudden change type has notable latitudinal difference, while in the western mountainous area it is very rare. Although the temperature change over the 40 years is still increasing in this area, the trend has reduced gradually since the end of the 1980s.展开更多
Throughout the world, climate change is threatening the human population. In West Africa, smallholder farmers in indigenous agricultural societies typically hold considerable knowledge. Therefore, this study was condu...Throughout the world, climate change is threatening the human population. In West Africa, smallholder farmers in indigenous agricultural societies typically hold considerable knowledge. Therefore, this study was conducted in West Atacora of Benin Republic to assess the drivers of farmers’ perceptions of climate change risk. We used a random sampling technique to select 360 households’ heads who were interviewed regarding different climate change risks perception. Binomial logistic regression was used to assess the drivers of farmers’ perceptions of climate change risks. The results showed that the farmers in drier areas had a higher perception of the global risk of climate change than those in humid areas. The same trend was observed for the seven different individual’s climate change risk investigated. The study identified also membership of farm organizations as main sociodemographic characteristic that explains farmers’ perception of climate change risk perception. These findings are helpful tools to sensitize the local people on climate change risk and cope with the risk in agricultural lands.展开更多
Insurance against climate risk is essential for mitigating the adverse effects of climate change.However,theoretical consensus regarding climate risk insurance remains elusive,and the implementation of climate insuran...Insurance against climate risk is essential for mitigating the adverse effects of climate change.However,theoretical consensus regarding climate risk insurance remains elusive,and the implementation of climate insurance policies varies markedly between countries owing to various challenges.This study conducted bibliometric analysis of 1082 relevant publications(1975–2022)to determine the theoretical basis,evolution of research hotspots,and methodologies associated with climate risk insurance.Climate insurance publications are growing at an average annual rate of 8.9%,with more than 2333 authors from 1103 organizations in 78 countries publishing on the subject.On the basis of milestones of global climate change assessment,i.e.,the publication of the Fourth and Fifth Assessment Reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,climate insurance research can be divided into three major phases.In the start-up phase(1975–2007),research schemes examined the feasibilities and potentials of the National Flood Insurance Program in the United States,and the socioeconomic implications of transferring climate risk through reinsurance.The methodologies used in these studies were relatively simple owing to lack of comprehensive data.Research on flood insurance increased rapidly during the development phase(2008–2014),with increasing emphasis on the possibility of developing a flood insurance market in the Netherlands.Studies utilized catastrophe modeling and probabilistic approaches to estimate natural disaster losses and financial impacts.The boom phase(2015–2022)involved more research on the affordability of climate risk insurance given income inequality.The topic of climate insurance and the scope of its impact have developed global and interdisciplinary characteristics in terms of journal,sector,and disciplinary base.In the future,a trend might develop whereby big data will be combined with artificial intelligence and machine learning to design and implement index insurance.展开更多
The regulation of climate change risk is an important measure for China to achieve the goal of"carbon neutrality and carbon peak".Although China has built a legal regulation system for environmental risk at ...The regulation of climate change risk is an important measure for China to achieve the goal of"carbon neutrality and carbon peak".Although China has built a legal regulation system for environmental risk at the macro level,and normative and functionalism have constructed different paths for regulating climate change risk,it is necessary to analysis the two paths at the micro level,in order to examine its adaptability to climate change risk.The normative mode of climate change risk regulation emphasizes the clarity of the legal regulation system,controls the regulatory subject formally,and pays attention to the role of judicial review;The functionalist mode of climate change risk regulation emphasizes the authorization of regulatory subjects,and identifies and manages climate change risks in the way of administrative self-control.In order to regulate climate change risk,in addition to the traditional way of solving the problem of"normalization"and"functionalism",there is also a third regulatory mode,that is,to overcome the inherent shortcomings and defects of both functionalism and normalization,and to integrate the two necessary:not only pay attention to the legal normative requirements of the normative mode,but also mobilize the initiative of administrative regulation under functionalism,and strengthen the judicial prevention function,and then improve the effe ctiveness of China’s participation in global climate change governance.展开更多
Based on the citrus temperature, precipitation, sunlight and climate risk degree, the article divides subtropics of China into three types： the low risk region, the moderate risk region and the high risk region. The ...Based on the citrus temperature, precipitation, sunlight and climate risk degree, the article divides subtropics of China into three types： the low risk region, the moderate risk region and the high risk region. The citrus temperature risk increases with increasing latitude （except for the western mountainous area of subtropics of China）. The citrus precipitation risk in the central part of subtropics of China is higher than that in the northern and western parts. The distributions of citrus sunlight risk are not consistent to those of the citrus precipitation risk. The citrus climate risk is mainly influenced by temperature. There is latitudinal zonal law for the distribution of the climate risk, that is, the climate risk increases with increasing latitude At the same time the climate risk in mountainous area is high and that in eastern plain area is low. There are differences in the temporal and spatial changes of the citrus climate. In recent 46 years, the citrus climate risk presents a gradual increasing trend in subtropics of China, especially it has been increasing fast since the 1980s. Because of the global warming, the low risk region in the eastern and southern parts has a gradual decreasing trend, however, the high risk region in the northern and western parts has an increasing trend and the high risk region has been extending eastward and southward. The article analyses the distribution of the citrus climate risk degree of reduction rates of 〉10%, 〉20% and 〉30% in subtropics of China, and studies their changes in different time periods. Results show that the risk is increasing from southeast to northwest.展开更多
In the context of global warming,China is facing with increasing climate risks.It is imperative to develop quantitative indices to reflect the climate risks caused by extreme weather/climate events and adverse climati...In the context of global warming,China is facing with increasing climate risks.It is imperative to develop quantitative indices to reflect the climate risks caused by extreme weather/climate events and adverse climatic conditions in association with different industries.Based on the observations at 2288 meteorological stations in China and the meteorological disasters data,a set of indices are developed to measure climate risks due to water-logging,drought,high temperature,cryogenic freezing,and typhoon.A statistical method is then used to construct an overall climate risk index(CRI)for China from these individual indices.There is a good correspondence between these indices and historical climatic conditions.The CRI,the index of water-logging by rain,and the high temperature index increase at a rate of 0.28,0.37,and 0.65 per decade,respectively,from 1961 to 2016.The cryogenic freezing index is closely related to changes in the consumer price index for food.The high temperature index is correlated with the consumption of energy and electricity.The correlation between the yearly growth in claims on household property insurance and the sum of the water-logging index and the typhoon index in the same year is as high as 0.70.Both the growth rate of claims on agricultural insurance and the annual growth rate of hospital inpatients are positively correlated with the CRI.The year-on-year growth in the number of domestic tourists is significantly negatively correlated with the CRI in the same year.More efforts are needed to develop regional CRIs.展开更多
One of the key issues in climate risk management is to develop climate resilient infrastructure so as to ensure safety and sustainability of urban functioning systems as well as mitigate the adverse impacts associated...One of the key issues in climate risk management is to develop climate resilient infrastructure so as to ensure safety and sustainability of urban functioning systems as well as mitigate the adverse impacts associated with increasing climate hazards.However,conventional methods of assessing risks do not fully address the interaction of various subsystems within the city system and are unable to consolidate diverse opinions of various stakeholders on their assessments of sector-specific risks posed by climate change.To address this gap,this study advances an integrated-systems-analysis tool-Climate Risk Assessment of Infrastructure Tool(CRAIT),and applies it to analyze and compare the extent of risk factor exposure and vulnerability over time across five critical urban infrastructure sectors in Shanghai and Shenzhen,two cities that have distinctive geo-climate profiles and histories of infrastructure development.The results show significantly higher level of variation between the two cities in terms of vulnerability levels than that of exposure.More specifically,the sectors of critical buildings,water,energy,and information&communication in Shenzhen have significantly higher vulnerability levels than Shanghai in both the 2000s and the 2050s.We further discussed the vulnerability levels of subsystems in each sector and proposed twelve potential adaptation options for the roads system based on four sets of criteria:technical feasibility,flexibility,co-benefits,and policy compatibility.The application of CRAIT is bound to be a knowledge co-production process with the local experts and stakeholders.This knowledge co-production process highlights the importance of management advancements and nature-based green solutions in managing climate change risk in the future though differences are observed across the efficacy categories due to the geographical and meteorological conditions in the two cities.This study demonstrates that this knowledge co-creation process is valuable in facilitating policymakers'decision-making and their feedback to scientific understanding in climate risk assessment,and that this approach has general applicability for cities in other regions and countries.展开更多
Successful drought planning is dependent on the generation of timely and accurate early warning information.Yet there is little evidence to explain the extent to which crop farmers pay attention to and assimilate earl...Successful drought planning is dependent on the generation of timely and accurate early warning information.Yet there is little evidence to explain the extent to which crop farmers pay attention to and assimilate early warning drought information that aids in the policy formulation in support of drought risk reduction.A socioecological survey,using a structured questionnaire administered to 426 crop farming households,was carried out in the Talensi District of the Upper East Region,Ghana.The data analytic techniques used were frequency tables,relative importance index,and multinomial logistics embedded in SPSS v.20 software.The results show that crop farmers predominantly rely on agricultural extension officers for early warning drought information,with an estimated 78% of them paying little to very much attention to the information.The likelihood ratio Chi-square test showed that there is a significant improvement in fit as X^(2)(20)=96.792,p<0.000.Household status,average monthly income,and age were the significant predictors for crop farmers paying no attention at all to early warning drought information,while household status was the only significant factor among those paying a little attention.The drive to build a climate-resilient society with effective early warning centers across Ghana will receive 60% lower support from crop farmers paying no to a little attention as compared to farmers paying very much attention to early warning drought information.Broader stakeholder engagements should be carried out to harness inclusive support from crop farmers to build a climate-resilient society in Ghana.展开更多
The primary aim of this study was to develop a model of a socially inclusive climate risk insurance(CRI) mechanism based on the differential risk transfer approach. This study focused on the department of La Guajira, ...The primary aim of this study was to develop a model of a socially inclusive climate risk insurance(CRI) mechanism based on the differential risk transfer approach. This study focused on the department of La Guajira, Colombia, as a case study.La Guajira is the department in Colombia that, due to its critical disaster risk conditions, presents the adequate configuration for implementing a climate risk transfer mechanism. The article starts by analyzing risk conditions by using secondary data. Based on fieldwork, this research explored the perspectives of the most vulnerable sectors in La Guajira Department on the socioeconomic impacts and needs they experience regarding climate-related hazards, their adaptive measures for risk reduction, and their willingness to adopt CRI. This represents the fundamental input for the formulation of the CRI model. Consequently, this research proposed an operational structure as input for future implementations of the model. The results indicate that national and local disaster risk management public policies align with the sectors' needs and priorities. Strengthening sectoral associations can enhance representation in CRI projects. In-kind indemnization is preferred for women entrepreneurs and the indigenous community. The CRI model includes a risk pool through the family compensation fund of La Guajira as a sectoral agglomerator, with contingent credit and traditional/parametric insurance. The methodology developed in this study can be applied in different contexts worldwide as a guidance for informing national and international climate risk finance initiatives.展开更多
In this study,we examine the peer effect on climate risk information disclosure by analyzing A-share listed companies in China.We find that industry peers influence target firms’climate risk information disclosure th...In this study,we examine the peer effect on climate risk information disclosure by analyzing A-share listed companies in China.We find that industry peers influence target firms’climate risk information disclosure through active(passive)imitation resulting from cost-benefit considerations(institutional pressures).Leader companies are more likely to be emulated by within-industry follower companies and target firms prefer to learn from similar withinindustry firms.Executive overconfidence and performance pressure negatively affect target firms’willingness to emulate their peers.Finally,the peer effect of climate risk information disclosure demonstrates a regional aspect.Our findings have implications for reasonable climate risk information disclosure at the micro level and effective regulation to move toward achieving carbon peak/neutrality at the macro level.展开更多
Climate change is a threat to the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) in sub-Saharan Africa as its impacts can lead to increased incidences of poverty and inequality which can subsequently lead to a ...Climate change is a threat to the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) in sub-Saharan Africa as its impacts can lead to increased incidences of poverty and inequality which can subsequently lead to a 12% decline in the Human Development Index(HDI) for subSaharan Africa. Emerging countries such as China have the potential to support Africa to achieve the SDGs by pioneering Southe South Climate Finance(SSCF) modalities. In order to increase knowledge on climate informed development and the role of China in global climate governance, the paper examined various research articles, case studies, policy briefs and project reports. Sino-African aid, investments and trade were noted as essential in mitigating Africa's climate change vulnerabilities which induce poverty traps and inequality. Some African countries were noted to have a comparative advantage in environmental standards over China but lacked the initiative to use this comparative advantage to enhance the Forum on Chinae Africa Cooperation(FOCAC) and assist China to have a sustainable growth trajectory. The paper concludes that SSCF modalities can enhance climate risk management in Africa if they focus on improving financial inclusion and improving climate finance flows towards climate change adaptation activities in Africa. Additionally, to increase the effectiveness and impact of Chinese climate finance support to Africa, African policymakers should not allow political and market forces to decide how climate related support from China should be allocated as decisions based on political and market forces could potentially promote an inequitable distribution of funds and ignore the most vulnerable countries and regions.展开更多
The article discusses whether and to what extent an Arctic dimension in Chinese climate policy exists, and whether there are signs of potential linkages between China＇s engagement in the Arctic and its domestic clima...The article discusses whether and to what extent an Arctic dimension in Chinese climate policy exists, and whether there are signs of potential linkages between China＇s engagement in the Arctic and its domestic climate policies. Although the Arctic is not directly addressed in domestic climate policy, the article concludes that an Arctic dimension exists, in the following areas： the growing awareness in China of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, climate risk, resilience and vulnerability, which has contributed to increased attention to climatic change in the Arctic and its impact on China; polar scientific research, which is largely climate related, plays a significant role in determining China＇s Arctic climate agenda; China＇s climate policymaking and domestic institutional set-up is a contributing factor to climate engagement in the Arctic; China＇s status as an observer nation in the Arctic Council might potentially raise the profile of domestic climate policies and lead to the addition of an Arctic pillar to national climate change strategies.展开更多
In order to track the global warming issues in India, “Satellite Remote Sensing” can be used effectively and the main reason for choosing this is that it gives climate associated variables with a massive regional co...In order to track the global warming issues in India, “Satellite Remote Sensing” can be used effectively and the main reason for choosing this is that it gives climate associated variables with a massive regional coverage and global coverage. The survey has been effectively conducted through Ipsos and through this survey it can be stated that the global warming issue of India is increasing day by day. In addition, effective materials and methods have been highlighted and four models in this material part have been shown in a succinct manner. Uncertainty, poverty and the weak role of the local government are the major factors and these factors are increasing the climate risk issue.展开更多
Sowing time of wheat in south eastern Australia varies from autumn to early winter, depending on the seasonal ＇break＇. Wheat yields are often reduced by frost damage at flowering time and by heat-and/or water-stress...Sowing time of wheat in south eastern Australia varies from autumn to early winter, depending on the seasonal ＇break＇. Wheat yields are often reduced by frost damage at flowering time and by heat-and/or water-stress during grain filling. Selecting suitable varieties for specific sowing times is a complex decision farmers make because these varietal phenology and climate risks have to be assessed together. In order to help farmers make decisions, they need tools that simulate and analyse agronomically-suitable sowing dates （ASSD） for a given variety of wheat. The hypothesis underlining this study is the integration of a wheat phenology model with historical climate data is an effective approach to modelling the ASSD of current varieties used in the wheat growing areas of Southern NSW. The parameters of the wheat phenology model were based on data from five years of field experimentation across 15 sites. Data from four sites were used to examine varietal suitability in relation to sowing time and its associated risks of frost and heat damage. The optimum ASSD for any variety at 72 locations across Southern NSW was investigated. The results showed that there were substantial spatial variations in the ASSD across the target region. ASSD for a late maturing wheat genotype （EGA Gregory） can range from early March to late April, while the earliest acceptable sowing date for an early maturing spring wheat genotype （H46） can range from early to late May. The wide range of spatial variation in the earliest and latest sowing dates, as well as the varied length of sowing opportunities, highlighted the importance of being able to apply a modelling approach which can integrate information on crop phenology with climate risk for a given location. This approach would allow better decision-making on suitable varieties and sowing dates in order to minimise the risk of frost and heat damage affecting crop yield.展开更多
This study has been conducted in three districts of Punjab Province namely, Dera Ghazi Khan, Rajan Pur and Bahawalpur of Pakistan. The study showed the results of a survey of 300 farmers which was organized to assess ...This study has been conducted in three districts of Punjab Province namely, Dera Ghazi Khan, Rajan Pur and Bahawalpur of Pakistan. The study showed the results of a survey of 300 farmers which was organized to assess awareness level of farmers regarding crop insurance, factors affecting the awareness level among farmers and the perception of farmers about crop insurance. Based on exploratory research work upon the responses of farmers, the average and standard deviation were calculated. Probit model was applied to explore the factors affecting the awareness level of farmers. SPSS was used for the analysis of the collected data. The results revealed that out of 300 farmers, 184 farmers were aware with crop insurance and rests of the 116 farmers were not aware. Banks and E-media were found to be the two most important sources of the awareness for the respondent farmers. In the study area, the climatic risks were reported as the most severe risks faced by the farmers. The results also revealed the existence of negative perceptions of the farmers about crop insurance i.e. farmers perceived crop insurance as a kind of tax and they believed premium was so high that it was out of range of poor farmers and only large scale farmers could afford it. Results obtained by applying Probit model revealed that ＂education＂ and ＂previously availed agricultural credit＂ were the two most important factors which affected the awareness of the farmers regarding crop insurance.展开更多
Open-access gridded climate products have been suggested as a potential source of data for index insurance design and operation in data-limited regions.However,index insurance requires climate data with long historica...Open-access gridded climate products have been suggested as a potential source of data for index insurance design and operation in data-limited regions.However,index insurance requires climate data with long historical records,global geographical coverage and fine spatial resolution at the same time,which is nearly impossible to satisfy,especially with open-access data.In this paper,we spatially downscaled gridded climate data(precipitation,temperature,and soil moisture)in coarse spatial resolution with globally available longterm historical records to finer spatial resolution,using satellite-based data and machine learning algorithms.We then investigated the effect of index insurance contracts based on downscaled climate data for hedging spring wheat yield.This study employed countylevel spring wheat yield data between 1982 and 2018 from 56 counties overall in Kazakhstan and Mongolia.The results showed that in the majority of cases(70%),hedging effectiveness of index insurances increases when climate data is spatially downscaled with a machine learning approach.These improvements are statistically significant(p≤0.05).Among other climate data,more improvements in hedging effectiveness were observed when the insurance design was based on downscaled temperature and precipitation data.Overall,this study highlights the reasonability and benefits of downscaling climate data for insurance design and operation.展开更多
The successful bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics has provided a strong impetus for the development of China's ski industry.Ski areas have sprung up throughout the country,even in the low latitudes south of 30°...The successful bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics has provided a strong impetus for the development of China's ski industry.Ski areas have sprung up throughout the country,even in the low latitudes south of 30°N.However,ski tourism is extremely susceptible to weather and climate conditions.In the context of global warming,it has become important to assess the climate reliability of ski areas.Therefore,this study demonstrates a novel approach to assessing the ski tourism sector's climate risks,which can be easily applied in other markets catering to the same industry.Using the random forest regression model based on climate projections and survey data,we projected the ski season start dates,end dates and season lengths of 694 existing ski areas in China under three emission scenarios(RCP2.6,RCP4.5 and RCP8.5).Climate projections,including air temperature,snowfall,rainfall,wind speed and air humidity,were the ensemble means from five climate models.Results indicate that ski areas in China may have later start dates,earlier end dates and shorter ski seasons before 2099.By the 2090s,under RCP2.6,RCP4.5 and RCP8.5,20%(139),28%(195)and 35%(245)of ski areas are projected to be at high climate risk(ski season less than 60 d),respectively,while 28%(197),23%(157)and 8%(56)of ski areas are at low climate risk(ski season with at least 100 d),respectively.The climate risks are ranked from the highest to lowest in East,Central,Southwest,North,Northwest and Northeast China.Furthermore,the ski tourism sector in the latitudes south of 40°N is exposed to much higher climate risks than in areas north of 40°N.Therefore,climatic reliability should be carefully considered before establishing or expanding ski areas to avoid unnecessary resource waste and ecological damage,as well as to promote sustainable development in mountain areas.展开更多
This study investigates the potential influences of anthropogenic forcings and natural variability on the risk of summer extreme temperatures over China. We use three multi-thousand-member ensemble simulations with di...This study investigates the potential influences of anthropogenic forcings and natural variability on the risk of summer extreme temperatures over China. We use three multi-thousand-member ensemble simulations with different forcings （with or without anthropogenic greenhouse gases and aerosol emissions） to evaluate the human impact, and with sea surface temperature patterns from three different years around the E1 Nino-Southern Oscillation （ENSO） 2015/16 event （years 2014, 2015 and 2016） to evaluate the impact of natural variability. A generalized extreme value （GEV） distribution is used to fit the ensemble results. Based on these model results, we find that, during the peak of ENSO （2015）, daytime extreme tem- peratures axe smaller over the central China region compared to a normal year （2014）. During 2016, the risk of nighttime extreme temperatures is largely increased over the eastern coastal region. Both anomalies are of the same magnitude as the anthropogenic influence. Thus, ENSO can amplify or counterbalance （at a regional and annual scale） anthropogenic effects on extreme summer temperatures over China. Changes are mainly due to changes in the GEV location parameter. Thus, anomalies are due to a shift in the distributions and not to a change in temperature variability.展开更多
文摘This review focuses on major contemporary empirical studies that examine both the physical and regulatory sides of climate risk. These studies explore how climate risk affects firms’ operating performance and leverage, stock and bond valuation, cost of capital, and managerial behavior. We also discuss how the effect of climate risk on real estate markets depends on individuals’ beliefs about climate change. Furthermore, we summarize papers on climate risk activism and how firms can employ financial devices and technology to mitigate their climate risk. Finally, we make some recommendations for further research areas.
文摘In accordance with the canonical sources of the right of legal claim,the targets of judicial review,and the intensity of judicial review intervention policies,lawsuits that directly and indirectly activate the function of human rights protection amid climate risks can be divided into the following categories:climate change lawsuits based on international human rights law,climate change lawsuits based on the domestic constitution,and judicial review of administrative procedures.Due to the singularity of the legal status and force of international human rights law,its“direct applicability”and“explanatory applicability”limit its function in protecting human rights;Climate change lawsuits based on domestic constitutions have the identification of basic right of claim,the judgment of basic rights and function,and the scope of state obligations as the judgment process.Factors such as the difficulty in right typification caused by the integration of climate law and interests,the expansion of discretionary and administrative power in legislation under the context of risk prevention,and the functional boundary of the judicial system cause the dysfunction of the dichotomous review standard of positive rights and negative rights.Procedural rights represent an important dimension of climate-related human rights.With the standardization of administrative procedures on addressing climate risks,the courts are gradually reinforcing decision-making authorities’obligation of due diligence through judicial review of risk decision-making procedures,thus indirectly guaranteeing the realization of tangible human rights.
基金The Key Project of Science and Technology of Henan Province, No.0324100014
文摘The agricultural climate risk in the geographical transitional zones is very sensitive to climate change. Based on previous researches, this article established the cotton climate suitability model and the risk index to analyze the cotton climate risk degree in Henan Province. The result shows that, in the last 40 years, the cotton climate risk degree has a gradual increasing trend in which the precipitation plays a very important role, and the climate suitability and its deviation have different performances in the influence on the risk change in different phases; the increase rate of risk degree has significant regional and transitional characteristics, for example, from the eastern plain to the western mountains, the risk change rate becomes slower and slower, so the contrast between the central-southern Huang-Huai plain and the Funiu mountains is the most remarkable; and in the north-south direction, the contrast between the fast increase belt from the central-southern Huang-Huai plain to the middle Yellow River and the slow increase belt near the Yellow River is particularly remarkable, which is possibly the results of topographic and climatic transitional belt; and the risk change process also has obvious regional difference. For instance, abrupt change is an important characteristic in eastern Henan where this sudden change type has notable latitudinal difference, while in the western mountainous area it is very rare. Although the temperature change over the 40 years is still increasing in this area, the trend has reduced gradually since the end of the 1980s.
文摘Throughout the world, climate change is threatening the human population. In West Africa, smallholder farmers in indigenous agricultural societies typically hold considerable knowledge. Therefore, this study was conducted in West Atacora of Benin Republic to assess the drivers of farmers’ perceptions of climate change risk. We used a random sampling technique to select 360 households’ heads who were interviewed regarding different climate change risks perception. Binomial logistic regression was used to assess the drivers of farmers’ perceptions of climate change risks. The results showed that the farmers in drier areas had a higher perception of the global risk of climate change than those in humid areas. The same trend was observed for the seven different individual’s climate change risk investigated. The study identified also membership of farm organizations as main sociodemographic characteristic that explains farmers’ perception of climate change risk perception. These findings are helpful tools to sensitize the local people on climate change risk and cope with the risk in agricultural lands.
基金supported by the key projects of the National Social Science Fund of China(22AZD098).
文摘Insurance against climate risk is essential for mitigating the adverse effects of climate change.However,theoretical consensus regarding climate risk insurance remains elusive,and the implementation of climate insurance policies varies markedly between countries owing to various challenges.This study conducted bibliometric analysis of 1082 relevant publications(1975–2022)to determine the theoretical basis,evolution of research hotspots,and methodologies associated with climate risk insurance.Climate insurance publications are growing at an average annual rate of 8.9%,with more than 2333 authors from 1103 organizations in 78 countries publishing on the subject.On the basis of milestones of global climate change assessment,i.e.,the publication of the Fourth and Fifth Assessment Reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,climate insurance research can be divided into three major phases.In the start-up phase(1975–2007),research schemes examined the feasibilities and potentials of the National Flood Insurance Program in the United States,and the socioeconomic implications of transferring climate risk through reinsurance.The methodologies used in these studies were relatively simple owing to lack of comprehensive data.Research on flood insurance increased rapidly during the development phase(2008–2014),with increasing emphasis on the possibility of developing a flood insurance market in the Netherlands.Studies utilized catastrophe modeling and probabilistic approaches to estimate natural disaster losses and financial impacts.The boom phase(2015–2022)involved more research on the affordability of climate risk insurance given income inequality.The topic of climate insurance and the scope of its impact have developed global and interdisciplinary characteristics in terms of journal,sector,and disciplinary base.In the future,a trend might develop whereby big data will be combined with artificial intelligence and machine learning to design and implement index insurance.
基金supported by The Special Research Fund for Academic Postgraduates of The School of Law of Beijing Normal University(Grant Nos.2023LAW002,2023LAW015)Beijing Normal University Interdisciplinary Fund Project(Grant Nos.BNUXKJC2208,BNUXKJC2211)。
文摘The regulation of climate change risk is an important measure for China to achieve the goal of"carbon neutrality and carbon peak".Although China has built a legal regulation system for environmental risk at the macro level,and normative and functionalism have constructed different paths for regulating climate change risk,it is necessary to analysis the two paths at the micro level,in order to examine its adaptability to climate change risk.The normative mode of climate change risk regulation emphasizes the clarity of the legal regulation system,controls the regulatory subject formally,and pays attention to the role of judicial review;The functionalist mode of climate change risk regulation emphasizes the authorization of regulatory subjects,and identifies and manages climate change risks in the way of administrative self-control.In order to regulate climate change risk,in addition to the traditional way of solving the problem of"normalization"and"functionalism",there is also a third regulatory mode,that is,to overcome the inherent shortcomings and defects of both functionalism and normalization,and to integrate the two necessary:not only pay attention to the legal normative requirements of the normative mode,but also mobilize the initiative of administrative regulation under functionalism,and strengthen the judicial prevention function,and then improve the effe ctiveness of China’s participation in global climate change governance.
基金National Natural Sciences Foundation of China,No.40771033Special Item Funds of Climate Change Supported by China Meteorological Administration,No.CCSF-09-11
文摘Based on the citrus temperature, precipitation, sunlight and climate risk degree, the article divides subtropics of China into three types： the low risk region, the moderate risk region and the high risk region. The citrus temperature risk increases with increasing latitude （except for the western mountainous area of subtropics of China）. The citrus precipitation risk in the central part of subtropics of China is higher than that in the northern and western parts. The distributions of citrus sunlight risk are not consistent to those of the citrus precipitation risk. The citrus climate risk is mainly influenced by temperature. There is latitudinal zonal law for the distribution of the climate risk, that is, the climate risk increases with increasing latitude At the same time the climate risk in mountainous area is high and that in eastern plain area is low. There are differences in the temporal and spatial changes of the citrus climate. In recent 46 years, the citrus climate risk presents a gradual increasing trend in subtropics of China, especially it has been increasing fast since the 1980s. Because of the global warming, the low risk region in the eastern and southern parts has a gradual decreasing trend, however, the high risk region in the northern and western parts has an increasing trend and the high risk region has been extending eastward and southward. The article analyses the distribution of the citrus climate risk degree of reduction rates of 〉10%, 〉20% and 〉30% in subtropics of China, and studies their changes in different time periods. Results show that the risk is increasing from southeast to northwest.
基金Supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China(2018YFA0606302 and 2012CB955900)
文摘In the context of global warming,China is facing with increasing climate risks.It is imperative to develop quantitative indices to reflect the climate risks caused by extreme weather/climate events and adverse climatic conditions in association with different industries.Based on the observations at 2288 meteorological stations in China and the meteorological disasters data,a set of indices are developed to measure climate risks due to water-logging,drought,high temperature,cryogenic freezing,and typhoon.A statistical method is then used to construct an overall climate risk index(CRI)for China from these individual indices.There is a good correspondence between these indices and historical climatic conditions.The CRI,the index of water-logging by rain,and the high temperature index increase at a rate of 0.28,0.37,and 0.65 per decade,respectively,from 1961 to 2016.The cryogenic freezing index is closely related to changes in the consumer price index for food.The high temperature index is correlated with the consumption of energy and electricity.The correlation between the yearly growth in claims on household property insurance and the sum of the water-logging index and the typhoon index in the same year is as high as 0.70.Both the growth rate of claims on agricultural insurance and the annual growth rate of hospital inpatients are positively correlated with the CRI.The year-on-year growth in the number of domestic tourists is significantly negatively correlated with the CRI in the same year.More efforts are needed to develop regional CRIs.
基金supported by the Shenzhen Science and Technology Program(KCXFZ20201221173412035)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(51761135024)+1 种基金the UK-China Research&Innovation Partnership Fund through the Met Office Climate Science for Service Partnership(CSSP)China as part of the Newton Fund(Project:Climate Risk Assessment Tool for Chinese Cities)the UK-China Cooperation on Climate Change Risk Assessment(Phase 3)for financial support.
文摘One of the key issues in climate risk management is to develop climate resilient infrastructure so as to ensure safety and sustainability of urban functioning systems as well as mitigate the adverse impacts associated with increasing climate hazards.However,conventional methods of assessing risks do not fully address the interaction of various subsystems within the city system and are unable to consolidate diverse opinions of various stakeholders on their assessments of sector-specific risks posed by climate change.To address this gap,this study advances an integrated-systems-analysis tool-Climate Risk Assessment of Infrastructure Tool(CRAIT),and applies it to analyze and compare the extent of risk factor exposure and vulnerability over time across five critical urban infrastructure sectors in Shanghai and Shenzhen,two cities that have distinctive geo-climate profiles and histories of infrastructure development.The results show significantly higher level of variation between the two cities in terms of vulnerability levels than that of exposure.More specifically,the sectors of critical buildings,water,energy,and information&communication in Shenzhen have significantly higher vulnerability levels than Shanghai in both the 2000s and the 2050s.We further discussed the vulnerability levels of subsystems in each sector and proposed twelve potential adaptation options for the roads system based on four sets of criteria:technical feasibility,flexibility,co-benefits,and policy compatibility.The application of CRAIT is bound to be a knowledge co-production process with the local experts and stakeholders.This knowledge co-production process highlights the importance of management advancements and nature-based green solutions in managing climate change risk in the future though differences are observed across the efficacy categories due to the geographical and meteorological conditions in the two cities.This study demonstrates that this knowledge co-creation process is valuable in facilitating policymakers'decision-making and their feedback to scientific understanding in climate risk assessment,and that this approach has general applicability for cities in other regions and countries.
文摘Successful drought planning is dependent on the generation of timely and accurate early warning information.Yet there is little evidence to explain the extent to which crop farmers pay attention to and assimilate early warning drought information that aids in the policy formulation in support of drought risk reduction.A socioecological survey,using a structured questionnaire administered to 426 crop farming households,was carried out in the Talensi District of the Upper East Region,Ghana.The data analytic techniques used were frequency tables,relative importance index,and multinomial logistics embedded in SPSS v.20 software.The results show that crop farmers predominantly rely on agricultural extension officers for early warning drought information,with an estimated 78% of them paying little to very much attention to the information.The likelihood ratio Chi-square test showed that there is a significant improvement in fit as X^(2)(20)=96.792,p<0.000.Household status,average monthly income,and age were the significant predictors for crop farmers paying no attention at all to early warning drought information,while household status was the only significant factor among those paying a little attention.The drive to build a climate-resilient society with effective early warning centers across Ghana will receive 60% lower support from crop farmers paying no to a little attention as compared to farmers paying very much attention to early warning drought information.Broader stakeholder engagements should be carried out to harness inclusive support from crop farmers to build a climate-resilient society in Ghana.
基金supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) through grant No.2021.07982.BD
文摘The primary aim of this study was to develop a model of a socially inclusive climate risk insurance(CRI) mechanism based on the differential risk transfer approach. This study focused on the department of La Guajira, Colombia, as a case study.La Guajira is the department in Colombia that, due to its critical disaster risk conditions, presents the adequate configuration for implementing a climate risk transfer mechanism. The article starts by analyzing risk conditions by using secondary data. Based on fieldwork, this research explored the perspectives of the most vulnerable sectors in La Guajira Department on the socioeconomic impacts and needs they experience regarding climate-related hazards, their adaptive measures for risk reduction, and their willingness to adopt CRI. This represents the fundamental input for the formulation of the CRI model. Consequently, this research proposed an operational structure as input for future implementations of the model. The results indicate that national and local disaster risk management public policies align with the sectors' needs and priorities. Strengthening sectoral associations can enhance representation in CRI projects. In-kind indemnization is preferred for women entrepreneurs and the indigenous community. The CRI model includes a risk pool through the family compensation fund of La Guajira as a sectoral agglomerator, with contingent credit and traditional/parametric insurance. The methodology developed in this study can be applied in different contexts worldwide as a guidance for informing national and international climate risk finance initiatives.
基金funded by grants from the National Social Science Foundation of China(No.18ZDA095,No.21BJY080 and No.22CJY049)the Social Science Planning Fund of Liaoning Province(No.L22ZD039).
文摘In this study,we examine the peer effect on climate risk information disclosure by analyzing A-share listed companies in China.We find that industry peers influence target firms’climate risk information disclosure through active(passive)imitation resulting from cost-benefit considerations(institutional pressures).Leader companies are more likely to be emulated by within-industry follower companies and target firms prefer to learn from similar withinindustry firms.Executive overconfidence and performance pressure negatively affect target firms’willingness to emulate their peers.Finally,the peer effect of climate risk information disclosure demonstrates a regional aspect.Our findings have implications for reasonable climate risk information disclosure at the micro level and effective regulation to move toward achieving carbon peak/neutrality at the macro level.
文摘Climate change is a threat to the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) in sub-Saharan Africa as its impacts can lead to increased incidences of poverty and inequality which can subsequently lead to a 12% decline in the Human Development Index(HDI) for subSaharan Africa. Emerging countries such as China have the potential to support Africa to achieve the SDGs by pioneering Southe South Climate Finance(SSCF) modalities. In order to increase knowledge on climate informed development and the role of China in global climate governance, the paper examined various research articles, case studies, policy briefs and project reports. Sino-African aid, investments and trade were noted as essential in mitigating Africa's climate change vulnerabilities which induce poverty traps and inequality. Some African countries were noted to have a comparative advantage in environmental standards over China but lacked the initiative to use this comparative advantage to enhance the Forum on Chinae Africa Cooperation(FOCAC) and assist China to have a sustainable growth trajectory. The paper concludes that SSCF modalities can enhance climate risk management in Africa if they focus on improving financial inclusion and improving climate finance flows towards climate change adaptation activities in Africa. Additionally, to increase the effectiveness and impact of Chinese climate finance support to Africa, African policymakers should not allow political and market forces to decide how climate related support from China should be allocated as decisions based on political and market forces could potentially promote an inequitable distribution of funds and ignore the most vulnerable countries and regions.
基金the research project Asi Arctic,funded by the Norruss programme of the Research Council of Norway
文摘The article discusses whether and to what extent an Arctic dimension in Chinese climate policy exists, and whether there are signs of potential linkages between China＇s engagement in the Arctic and its domestic climate policies. Although the Arctic is not directly addressed in domestic climate policy, the article concludes that an Arctic dimension exists, in the following areas： the growing awareness in China of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, climate risk, resilience and vulnerability, which has contributed to increased attention to climatic change in the Arctic and its impact on China; polar scientific research, which is largely climate related, plays a significant role in determining China＇s Arctic climate agenda; China＇s climate policymaking and domestic institutional set-up is a contributing factor to climate engagement in the Arctic; China＇s status as an observer nation in the Arctic Council might potentially raise the profile of domestic climate policies and lead to the addition of an Arctic pillar to national climate change strategies.
文摘In order to track the global warming issues in India, “Satellite Remote Sensing” can be used effectively and the main reason for choosing this is that it gives climate associated variables with a massive regional coverage and global coverage. The survey has been effectively conducted through Ipsos and through this survey it can be stated that the global warming issue of India is increasing day by day. In addition, effective materials and methods have been highlighted and four models in this material part have been shown in a succinct manner. Uncertainty, poverty and the weak role of the local government are the major factors and these factors are increasing the climate risk issue.
文摘Sowing time of wheat in south eastern Australia varies from autumn to early winter, depending on the seasonal ＇break＇. Wheat yields are often reduced by frost damage at flowering time and by heat-and/or water-stress during grain filling. Selecting suitable varieties for specific sowing times is a complex decision farmers make because these varietal phenology and climate risks have to be assessed together. In order to help farmers make decisions, they need tools that simulate and analyse agronomically-suitable sowing dates （ASSD） for a given variety of wheat. The hypothesis underlining this study is the integration of a wheat phenology model with historical climate data is an effective approach to modelling the ASSD of current varieties used in the wheat growing areas of Southern NSW. The parameters of the wheat phenology model were based on data from five years of field experimentation across 15 sites. Data from four sites were used to examine varietal suitability in relation to sowing time and its associated risks of frost and heat damage. The optimum ASSD for any variety at 72 locations across Southern NSW was investigated. The results showed that there were substantial spatial variations in the ASSD across the target region. ASSD for a late maturing wheat genotype （EGA Gregory） can range from early March to late April, while the earliest acceptable sowing date for an early maturing spring wheat genotype （H46） can range from early to late May. The wide range of spatial variation in the earliest and latest sowing dates, as well as the varied length of sowing opportunities, highlighted the importance of being able to apply a modelling approach which can integrate information on crop phenology with climate risk for a given location. This approach would allow better decision-making on suitable varieties and sowing dates in order to minimise the risk of frost and heat damage affecting crop yield.
文摘This study has been conducted in three districts of Punjab Province namely, Dera Ghazi Khan, Rajan Pur and Bahawalpur of Pakistan. The study showed the results of a survey of 300 farmers which was organized to assess awareness level of farmers regarding crop insurance, factors affecting the awareness level among farmers and the perception of farmers about crop insurance. Based on exploratory research work upon the responses of farmers, the average and standard deviation were calculated. Probit model was applied to explore the factors affecting the awareness level of farmers. SPSS was used for the analysis of the collected data. The results revealed that out of 300 farmers, 184 farmers were aware with crop insurance and rests of the 116 farmers were not aware. Banks and E-media were found to be the two most important sources of the awareness for the respondent farmers. In the study area, the climatic risks were reported as the most severe risks faced by the farmers. The results also revealed the existence of negative perceptions of the farmers about crop insurance i.e. farmers perceived crop insurance as a kind of tax and they believed premium was so high that it was out of range of poor farmers and only large scale farmers could afford it. Results obtained by applying Probit model revealed that ＂education＂ and ＂previously availed agricultural credit＂ were the two most important factors which affected the awareness of the farmers regarding crop insurance.
基金supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research(BMBF)[FKZ 01LZ1705A].
文摘Open-access gridded climate products have been suggested as a potential source of data for index insurance design and operation in data-limited regions.However,index insurance requires climate data with long historical records,global geographical coverage and fine spatial resolution at the same time,which is nearly impossible to satisfy,especially with open-access data.In this paper,we spatially downscaled gridded climate data(precipitation,temperature,and soil moisture)in coarse spatial resolution with globally available longterm historical records to finer spatial resolution,using satellite-based data and machine learning algorithms.We then investigated the effect of index insurance contracts based on downscaled climate data for hedging spring wheat yield.This study employed countylevel spring wheat yield data between 1982 and 2018 from 56 counties overall in Kazakhstan and Mongolia.The results showed that in the majority of cases(70%),hedging effectiveness of index insurances increases when climate data is spatially downscaled with a machine learning approach.These improvements are statistically significant(p≤0.05).Among other climate data,more improvements in hedging effectiveness were observed when the insurance design was based on downscaled temperature and precipitation data.Overall,this study highlights the reasonability and benefits of downscaling climate data for insurance design and operation.
基金the National Nature Science Foundation of China(42125604,41690143,and 42201159)the open fund from the State Key Laboratory of Cryosphere Science(SKLCS-OP-2021-01).
文摘The successful bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics has provided a strong impetus for the development of China's ski industry.Ski areas have sprung up throughout the country,even in the low latitudes south of 30°N.However,ski tourism is extremely susceptible to weather and climate conditions.In the context of global warming,it has become important to assess the climate reliability of ski areas.Therefore,this study demonstrates a novel approach to assessing the ski tourism sector's climate risks,which can be easily applied in other markets catering to the same industry.Using the random forest regression model based on climate projections and survey data,we projected the ski season start dates,end dates and season lengths of 694 existing ski areas in China under three emission scenarios(RCP2.6,RCP4.5 and RCP8.5).Climate projections,including air temperature,snowfall,rainfall,wind speed and air humidity,were the ensemble means from five climate models.Results indicate that ski areas in China may have later start dates,earlier end dates and shorter ski seasons before 2099.By the 2090s,under RCP2.6,RCP4.5 and RCP8.5,20%(139),28%(195)and 35%(245)of ski areas are projected to be at high climate risk(ski season less than 60 d),respectively,while 28%(197),23%(157)and 8%(56)of ski areas are at low climate risk(ski season with at least 100 d),respectively.The climate risks are ranked from the highest to lowest in East,Central,Southwest,North,Northwest and Northeast China.Furthermore,the ski tourism sector in the latitudes south of 40°N is exposed to much higher climate risks than in areas north of 40°N.Therefore,climatic reliability should be carefully considered before establishing or expanding ski areas to avoid unnecessary resource waste and ecological damage,as well as to promote sustainable development in mountain areas.
基金supported by the UK-China Research and Innovation Partnership Fund through the Met Office Climate Science for Service Partnership(CSSP) China as part of the Newton Fund
文摘This study investigates the potential influences of anthropogenic forcings and natural variability on the risk of summer extreme temperatures over China. We use three multi-thousand-member ensemble simulations with different forcings （with or without anthropogenic greenhouse gases and aerosol emissions） to evaluate the human impact, and with sea surface temperature patterns from three different years around the E1 Nino-Southern Oscillation （ENSO） 2015/16 event （years 2014, 2015 and 2016） to evaluate the impact of natural variability. A generalized extreme value （GEV） distribution is used to fit the ensemble results. Based on these model results, we find that, during the peak of ENSO （2015）, daytime extreme tem- peratures axe smaller over the central China region compared to a normal year （2014）. During 2016, the risk of nighttime extreme temperatures is largely increased over the eastern coastal region. Both anomalies are of the same magnitude as the anthropogenic influence. Thus, ENSO can amplify or counterbalance （at a regional and annual scale） anthropogenic effects on extreme summer temperatures over China. Changes are mainly due to changes in the GEV location parameter. Thus, anomalies are due to a shift in the distributions and not to a change in temperature variability.
