In interpreting the feudal contract between kings and nobles in medieval Western Europe,Western historians have tended to elaborate on its interaction,equivalence,and even equality,with an emphasis on the resulting re...In interpreting the feudal contract between kings and nobles in medieval Western Europe,Western historians have tended to elaborate on its interaction,equivalence,and even equality,with an emphasis on the resulting restrictions on the king's authority.However,this was not the case in England during this period.After the Norman Conquest,“imported feudalism”became a strong support for the English monarchy.On this basis,the feudal contract between kings and nobles evolved from an oral to a textual contract and from“personal commitment”to“collective negotiation,”in a process strongly marked by the coercion and inequality bestowed on such contracts by hierarchical feudal roles.In the course of this process,the English kings ceaselessly consolidated their power by breaking down the feudal customs reflected in agreements between the two sides.Although the Magna Carta,as a text-based feudal contract,made explicit provision for feudal customs,it failed to effectively constrain royal power.History shows that if we seek to elaborate on the reciprocity and even equality of the feudal contract from the perspective of modern social contract theory and thus exaggerate the nobles'right to resist the king,we will inevitably construct a mythical“feudal contract determinism.”展开更多
All of the existing emergency notes of pharmacy in Hungary between 1914 and 1919 were collected, presented and studied. The concept of emergency money, the causes and circumstances leading to its development were defi...All of the existing emergency notes of pharmacy in Hungary between 1914 and 1919 were collected, presented and studied. The concept of emergency money, the causes and circumstances leading to its development were defined. The historical backgrounds of these reasons were studied and presented in chronology order. The various issued emergency money of pharmacy was classified and demonstrated in pictures. When an economic crisis turns up in the life of mankind, special solutions will occur. World War I breaking out a hundred years ago and the Hungarian Soviet Republic created such a situation in Hungary. The official currency was replaced with a new one, the amount of which could not cover the daily purchase of people. The lack of change led to print numerous emergency notes in different fields of life. In this study, all of the so-far discovered pharmaceutical emergency money was collected and presented systematically. The paper is considered to be unique since in the field of the history of pharmacy similar ones have not been born recently. The released notes provide an instantaneous picture of the industry （art, typography, chemical industry etc.） of the given country as well. These pieces of paper are regarded to be valuable treasure among numismatics.展开更多
文摘In interpreting the feudal contract between kings and nobles in medieval Western Europe,Western historians have tended to elaborate on its interaction,equivalence,and even equality,with an emphasis on the resulting restrictions on the king's authority.However,this was not the case in England during this period.After the Norman Conquest,“imported feudalism”became a strong support for the English monarchy.On this basis,the feudal contract between kings and nobles evolved from an oral to a textual contract and from“personal commitment”to“collective negotiation,”in a process strongly marked by the coercion and inequality bestowed on such contracts by hierarchical feudal roles.In the course of this process,the English kings ceaselessly consolidated their power by breaking down the feudal customs reflected in agreements between the two sides.Although the Magna Carta,as a text-based feudal contract,made explicit provision for feudal customs,it failed to effectively constrain royal power.History shows that if we seek to elaborate on the reciprocity and even equality of the feudal contract from the perspective of modern social contract theory and thus exaggerate the nobles'right to resist the king,we will inevitably construct a mythical“feudal contract determinism.”
文摘All of the existing emergency notes of pharmacy in Hungary between 1914 and 1919 were collected, presented and studied. The concept of emergency money, the causes and circumstances leading to its development were defined. The historical backgrounds of these reasons were studied and presented in chronology order. The various issued emergency money of pharmacy was classified and demonstrated in pictures. When an economic crisis turns up in the life of mankind, special solutions will occur. World War I breaking out a hundred years ago and the Hungarian Soviet Republic created such a situation in Hungary. The official currency was replaced with a new one, the amount of which could not cover the daily purchase of people. The lack of change led to print numerous emergency notes in different fields of life. In this study, all of the so-far discovered pharmaceutical emergency money was collected and presented systematically. The paper is considered to be unique since in the field of the history of pharmacy similar ones have not been born recently. The released notes provide an instantaneous picture of the industry （art, typography, chemical industry etc.） of the given country as well. These pieces of paper are regarded to be valuable treasure among numismatics.
