Various land use and land cover(LULC)products have been produced over the past decade with the development of remote sensing technology.Despite the differences in LULC classification schemes,there is a lack of researc...Various land use and land cover(LULC)products have been produced over the past decade with the development of remote sensing technology.Despite the differences in LULC classification schemes,there is a lack of research on assessing the accuracy of their application to croplands in a unified framework.Thus,this study evaluated the spatial and area accuracies of cropland classification for four commonly used global LULC products(i.e.,MCD12Q1V6,GlobCover2009,FROM-GLC and GlobeLand30)based on the harmonised FAO criterion,and quantified the relationships between four factors(i.e.,slope,elevation,field size and crop system)and cropland classification agreement.The validation results indicated that MCD12Q1 and GlobeLand30 performed well in cropland classification regarding spatial consistency,with overall accuracies of 94.90 and 93.52%,respectively.The FROMGLC showed the worst performance,with an overall accuracy of 83.17%.Overlaying the cropland generated by the four global LULC products,we found the proportions of complete agreement and disagreement were 15.51 and 44.72% for the cropland classification,respectively.High consistency was mainly observed in the Northeast China Plain,the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain and the northern part of the Middle-lower Yangtze Plain,China.In contrast,low consistency was detected primarily on the eastern edge of the northern and semiarid region,the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and southern China.Field size was the most important factor for mapping cropland.For area accuracy,compared with China Statistical Yearbook data at the provincial scale,the accuracies of different products in descending order were:GlobeLand30,FROM-GLC,MCD12Q1,and GlobCover2009.The cropland classification schemes mainly caused large area deviations among the four products,and they also resulted in the different ranks of spatial accuracy and area accuracy among the four products.Our results can provide valuable suggestions for selecting cropland products at the national or provincial scale and help cropland mapping and reconstruction,which is essential for food security and crop management,so they can also contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals issued by the United Nations.展开更多
Proposed agroforestry options should begin with the species that farmers are most familiar with,which would be the native multipurpose trees that have evolved under smallholder farms and socioeconomic conditions.The A...Proposed agroforestry options should begin with the species that farmers are most familiar with,which would be the native multipurpose trees that have evolved under smallholder farms and socioeconomic conditions.The African birch(Anogeissus leiocarpa(DC.)Guill.&Perr.)and pink jacaranda(Stereospermum kunthianum Cham.)trees are the dominant species in the agroforestry parkland system in the drylands of Tigray,Ethiopia.Smallholder farmers highly value these trees for their multifunctional uses including timber,firewood,charcoal,medicine,etc.These trees also could improve soil fertility.However,the amount of soil physical and chemical properties enhanced by the two species must be determined to maintain the sustainable conservation of the species in the parklands and to scale up to similar agroecological systems.Hence,we selected twelve isolated trees,six from each species that had similar dendrometric characteristics and were growing in similar environmental conditions.We divided the canopy cover of each tree into three radial distances:mid-canopy,canopy edge,and canopy gap(control).At each distance,we took soil samples from three different depths.We collected 216 soil samples(half disturbed and the other half undisturbed)from each canopy position and soil depth.Bulk density(BD),soil moisture content(SMC),soil organic carbon(SOC),total nitrogen(TN),available phosphorus(AP),available potassium(AK),p H,electrical conductivity(EC),and cation exchange capacity(CEC)were analysed.Results revealed that soil physical and chemical properties significantly improved except for soil texture and EC under both species,CEC under A.leiocarpus,and soil p H under S.kunthianum,all the studied soils were improved under both species canopy as compared with canopy gap.SMC,TN,AP,and AK under canopy of these trees were respectively 24.1%,11.1%,55.0%,and 9.3% higher than those soils under control.The two parkland agroforestry species significantly enhanced soil fertility near the canopy of topsoil through improving soil physical and chemical properties.These two species were recommended in the drylands with similar agro-ecological systems.展开更多
Rangeland degradation is a serious problem throughout sub-Saharan Africa and its restoration is a challenge for the management of arid and semi-arid areas. In Lake Baringo Basin of Kenya, communities and individual fa...Rangeland degradation is a serious problem throughout sub-Saharan Africa and its restoration is a challenge for the management of arid and semi-arid areas. In Lake Baringo Basin of Kenya, communities and individual farmers are restoring indigenous vegetation inside enclosures in an effort to combat severe land degradation and address their livelihood problems. This study evaluated the impact of enclosure management on soil properties and microbial biomass, being key indicators of soil ecosystem health. Six reseeded communal enclosures using soil embankments as water-harvesting structures and strictly regulated access were selected, varying in age from 13 to 23 years. In six private enclosures, ranging from 3 to 17 years in age, individual farmers emulated the communal enclosure strategy and restored areas for their exclusive use. Significant decreases in bulk density, and increases in the soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and microbial biomass contents and stocks were found in the enclosures as compared with the degraded open rangeland. In the private enclosures, the impact of rehabilitation on the soil quality was variable, and soil quality was in general lower than that obtained under communal management. The significant increase of absolute stocks of carbon, nitrogen and microbial biomass compared to the degraded open rangeland indicates the potential for the restoration of soil quality through range rehabilitation. Over-sowing with indigenous legume fodder species could improve total nitrogen content in the soil and nutritional value of the pastures as well.展开更多
Drought stress is a major factor affecting plant growth and crop yield production.Plant extracts as natural biostimulants hold great potential to strengthen plants to overcome drought impacts.To explore the effect of ...Drought stress is a major factor affecting plant growth and crop yield production.Plant extracts as natural biostimulants hold great potential to strengthen plants to overcome drought impacts.To explore the effect of Polygonum minus extract(PME)in enhancing drought tolerance in plants,a study was set up in a glasshouse environment using 10 different treatment combinations.PME foliar application were designed in CRD and effects were closely observed related to the growth,physiology,and antioxidant system changes in maize(Zea mays L.)under well-watered and drought conditions.The seaweed extract(SWE)was used as a comparison.Plants subjected to drought stress exhibited a significant reduction in fresh weight,dry weight,relative water content(RWC),and soluble sugar,but they stimulated the phenolic,flavonoid,proline,glutathione(GSH),malondialdehyde(MDA)and antioxidant enzyme(catalase,CAT;peroxidase,POD;superoxide dismutase,SOD)activities.Foliar application of PME improved fresh and dry weight(FW:33.1%~41.4%;DW:48.0%~43.1%),chlorophyll content(Chl b:87.9%~100.76%),soluble sugar(23.6%~49.3%),and soluble protein(48.6%~56.9%)as well as antioxidant enzyme activities(CAT and POD)compared to CK under drought conditions.while decreasing the level of MDA.Notably,the mitigating effect of PME application with high concentration was more effective than those of SWE.Our study reveals that PME could alleviate drought stress by regulating osmoprotectant content and antioxidant defense system and can be used as an economical and environmentally friendly biostimulants for promoting maize growth under drought stress.展开更多
Tropical peat comprises decomposed dead plant material and acts like a sponge to absorb water,making it fully saturated.However,drought periods dry it readily and increases its vulnerability to fire.Peat fires emit gr...Tropical peat comprises decomposed dead plant material and acts like a sponge to absorb water,making it fully saturated.However,drought periods dry it readily and increases its vulnerability to fire.Peat fires emit greenhouse gases and particles contributing to haze,and prevention by constructing fire-break canals to reduce fire spread into forest reserves is crucial.This paper aims to determine peat physical and chemical properties near a fire-break canal at different fire frequency areas.Peat sampling was conducted at two forest reserves in Malaysia which represent low fire frequency and high fire frequency areas.The results show that peat properties were not affected by the construction of a fire-break canal,however lignin and cellulose content increased significantly from the distance of the canal in both areas.The study concluded that fire frequency did not significantly influence peat properties except for porosity.The higher fibre content in the high frequency area did not influence moisture content nor the ability to regain moisture.Thus,fire frequency might contribute differently to changes in physical and chemical properties,hence management efforts to construct fire-break canals and restoration efforts should protect peatlands from further degradation.These findings will benefit future management and planning for forest reserves.展开更多
This paper explores the potential to improve the impervious surface estimation accuracy using a multi-stage approach on the basis of vegetation-impervious surface-soil (V-I-S) model. In the first stage of Spectral Mix...This paper explores the potential to improve the impervious surface estimation accuracy using a multi-stage approach on the basis of vegetation-impervious surface-soil (V-I-S) model. In the first stage of Spectral Mixture Analysis (SMA) process, pixel purity index, a quantitative index for defining endmember quality, and a 3-dimensional endmember selection method were applied to refining endmembers. In the second stage, instead of obtaining impervious surface fraction by adding high and low albedo fractions directly, a linear regression model was built between impervious surface and high/low albedo using a random sampling method. The urban impervious surface distribution in the urban central area of Shanghai was predicted by the linear regression model. Estimation accuracy of spectral mixture analysis and impervious surface fraction were assessed using root mean square (RMS) and color aerial photography respectively. In comparison with three different research methods, this improved estimation method has a higher overall accuracy than traditional Linear Spectral Mixture Analysis (LSMA) method and the normalized SMA model both in root mean square error (RMSE) and standard error (SE). However, the model has a tendency to overestimate the impervious surface distribution.展开更多
Validity of CA-Markov in land use and cover change simulation was investigated at the Langat Basin, Selangor, Malaysia. CA-Markov validation was performed using validation metrics, allocation disagreement, quantity di...Validity of CA-Markov in land use and cover change simulation was investigated at the Langat Basin, Selangor, Malaysia. CA-Markov validation was performed using validation metrics, allocation disagreement, quantity disagreement, and figure of merit in a three-dimensional space. The figure of merit, quantity error, and allocation error for total landscape simulation using the 1990-1997 calibration data were 5.62%, 3.53%, and 6.13%, respectively. CA-Markov showed a poor performance for land use and cover change simulation due to uncertainties in the source data, the model, and future land use and cover change processes in the study area.展开更多
Opencast coal mining has a large impact on the land surface,both at the mining pits themselves and at waste sites.After artifcial management is stopped,a reclaimed opencast coal mine dump is afected by wind and water ...Opencast coal mining has a large impact on the land surface,both at the mining pits themselves and at waste sites.After artifcial management is stopped,a reclaimed opencast coal mine dump is afected by wind and water erosion from natural processes,resulting in land degradation and even safety incidents.In this paper,the soil erosion and land degradation after 5 years of such natural processes,at the Xilinhot opencast coal mine dump in Inner Mongolia,were investigated.A multisource data acquisition method was applied:the vegetation fraction coverage(VFC)was extracted from GF-1 satellite imagery,high-precision terrain characteristics and the location and degree of soil erosion were obtained using a drone,and the physical properties of the topsoil were obtained by feld sampling.On this basis,the degree and spatial distribution of erosion cracks were identifed,and the causes of soil erosion and land degradation were analyzed using the geographical detector.The results show that(1)multi-source data acquisition method can provide efective basic data for the quantitative evaluation of the ecological environment at dumps,and(2)slope aspect and VFC are the main factors afecting the degree of degradation and soil erosion.Based on above analysis,several countermeasures are proposed to mitigate land degradation:(1)The windward slope be designed to imitate the natural landform.(2)Reasonable engineering measures should be applied at the slope to restrain soil erosion.(3)The Pioneer plants should be widely planted on the platform at the early stage of reclamation.展开更多
Forest cover and land use change directly impact biological diversity worldwide,contribute to climate change and affect the ability of biological systems to support human needs by altering ecosystem services. Given th...Forest cover and land use change directly impact biological diversity worldwide,contribute to climate change and affect the ability of biological systems to support human needs by altering ecosystem services. Given the forest land use characteristics and ecosystem types in Luang Namtha Province,Lao PDR,the forest cover and land cover category of Luang Namtha Province were divided into six classes,i.e.,current forest(CF) ,potential forest(PF) ,other wooded areas(OW) ,permanent agricultural land(PA) ,other non-forest areas(NF) and water(W) . In first instance,earlier geographic information data(GIS data) of forest cover and land use during 1992 and 2002 was obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry(MAF) ,Lao PDR. Two steps of forest land use change assessment were conducted by the MAF,i.e.,plot sampling on satellite image maps(SIMs) to detect the changes of forest cover and land use during 1992 and 2002 for the entire Luang Namtha Province and field verification in order to identify causes of the changes. Secondly,dynamic information of the forest land cover changes during this ten-year period was calculated by means of map algebra in ArcGIS 9.2. Thirdly,based on the theory of ecosystem service functions and the service function values of different global ecosystems,the value of the six forest cover and land use categories in the province was obtained. Finally,ecological environmental effects,produced by the regional land cover changes over the study period,were calculated.展开更多
At present,China is facing rapid economic and social development as well as the shortage of land for construction. In fact,various countries and regions are faced with similar problems in the process of urbanization a...At present,China is facing rapid economic and social development as well as the shortage of land for construction. In fact,various countries and regions are faced with similar problems in the process of urbanization and industrialization,and the land readjustment is often adopted for construction land consolidation to promote economical and intensive land use and solve the supply and demand conflict of construction land. Based on the land readjustment experience of Germany,Japan,China Taiwan and South Korea,we perform a comparative analysis on the implementation background,concept,purpose,procedures and core principles,and borrow ideas from their experience,in order to provide a reference for China to adopt suitable land readjustment tools during construction land consolidation.展开更多
This study identified the importance of watershed attributes for water resource management using ArcGIS software, ASTER DEM and satellite images for the Chelekot micro-watershed, Tigray, Ethiopia. The study also evalu...This study identified the importance of watershed attributes for water resource management using ArcGIS software, ASTER DEM and satellite images for the Chelekot micro-watershed, Tigray, Ethiopia. The study also evaluate the different hydrological parameters which are significant for the water resource management within the micro-watershed and finds the alternative solutions for water harvesting in the study area through the introduction of suitable soil and water conservation structures based on the finding. Principal watershed attributes including drainage pattern, topographic parameters, land use types, and soil types were evaluated and interpreted for the study micro-watershed. ArcGIS software was used for the computation, delineation of the boundary and morphometric analysis of the micro-watershed using topographical maps and ASTER DEM data. Results indicate that the micro-watershed has classified as a dendritic pattern with stream orders ranging from first to fifth order. The micro-watershed has homogeneity in texture and lack of structural control of surface flow. The drainage density is medium which indicates the area contains soils with medium infiltration rates and moderate relief. Drainage texture, stream frequency and the form factor of the micro-watershed are 4.1, 1.7 and 0.4 respectively. The bifurcation ratio of the micro-watershed ranges from 1 to 4.5 and the elongation ratio is 0.7 which reveals that the micro-watershed belongs to the less elongated shaped micro-watershed category. The mean bifurcation ratio of the whole micro-watershed is 3.3 indicating that the drainage pattern is not greatly influenced by geological structures. The micro-watershed land covers includes: cultivated land (75.8%), settlement and open land (10.5%), shrubs and plantation (13.2%), and water body (0.4%). The major soil types are Vertisol (58%), Camisole (32%), Regosol (9.5%) and Luvisol (0.7%). The textural classes are clay (5%), silty clay (22%), clay loam (17%), sandy loam (21%) and loam (35%) based on the soil textural map of the micro-watershed. Our results revealed that using GIS and ASTER DEM data based watershed morphometric analysis and hydrological evaluation at watershed scale is more applied and precise compared to other available techniques.展开更多
Evaluation of the changes in land use and land cover change (LULCC) in respect to oil exploration across the Albertine region in Uganda has been focused around the exploration areas and protected areas, with no attent...Evaluation of the changes in land use and land cover change (LULCC) in respect to oil exploration across the Albertine region in Uganda has been focused around the exploration areas and protected areas, with no attention to the potential impacts of evictees’ activities on resettled areas. This study used LANDSAT images to analyze the land use and land cover changes (LULCC) among the period before eviction (2002 and 2005) at the climax of eviction and resettlements (2005-2011), and during the post-resettlement period (2011-2015) to quantify the impacts of resettlements on the environment. LANDSAT images were processed using ERDAS IMAGINE software and analyzed using ArcGIS 10.1 to determine LULCC in relation to post-eviction resettlement in the study area. Results from the study indicate. The results of the study indicate that vegetation reduced by 33.08 percent, woodland were converted into settlements by 48 percent while farmlands increased by 18.3 percent. Non vegetated areas increased during resettlements however they reduced five years after eviction which indicated the ability of the ecosystem to stabilize. The study proved that post eviction induced resettlements can yield potential environmental effects to resettled areas. It is important therefore to plan and implement other means of additional source of income and construction materials for evictees to abate vegetation clearance and hence rescue the woodland. The study also recommends maintenance of an optimum population and well-planned pre eviction resettlement schemes.展开更多
Watamu Mida creek coastal areas, mainly the shoreline, the mangroves and the general environment have been changing due to the impact of land use change, shoreline erosion, human population pressure and the expansion ...Watamu Mida creek coastal areas, mainly the shoreline, the mangroves and the general environment have been changing due to the impact of land use change, shoreline erosion, human population pressure and the expansion of tourism sector. This research assesses the impact of land use change on mangrove dynamics and shoreline erosion as well as the main driving factors that cause these changes in Watamu Midacreek. This study uses old aerial photographs (1969 and 1989), current high resolution satellite images World view (2010) and ground truthing in combination with information from the local community to analyze the impact of change in land use from 1969-2010. Land use and cover types were visually interpreted, digitized and delineated using aerial photographs of 1969, 1989 and 2010 satellite images in ArcGIS.9.3.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE 2014 software. The results of the land use change between 1969 and 1989 showed a decline of scrub land, miscellaneous coastal vegetation, coastal bush, thicket with trees and mangroves, whereas new types of land use which emerged during this period were town and barren land. The greatest land use change rate observed between 1969 and 1989 was in miscellaneous coastal vegetation at 2.5%, while coastal bush experienced a significant negative change rate of 6.5%. The main land use changes observed between 1989 and 2010 were increasing coastal bush, an expansion of town and urban areas, hotels and private holiday houses. Encroachments into the mangrove forest have been observed both by local people and foreign private holiday house owners. The change in land use had an impact on shoreline changes as well. Areas mainly covered by old trees, and coastal bushes which protected the shoreline from erosion currently have been converted into very big hotels and several private holiday house complexes. The main drivers of land use change were human population growth and policy (through weakness of law enforcement). Policies and regulations which are not currently implemented need to be updated based on the current pressure-state situation, and there should be strong law enforcement and strict regulation to control any unplanned developments along the coast and in the neighboring hinterland.展开更多
This paper probes into the relationship among individual benefi ts, benefi ts of the country, common benef its of all humans in land use and land resource security. The following balanced land use model is proposed: t...This paper probes into the relationship among individual benefi ts, benefi ts of the country, common benef its of all humans in land use and land resource security. The following balanced land use model is proposed: the harmo-nious and interactive relationship between man and nature, two main bodies of land ecological system, constitutes the mechanism of land resources security. The feedback relationship between man and nature is the basis for the land resources security and the core is the relationship among people established for the benefi t equilibrium in land use. The conflicts in land use stem from the rarity of land resource and the solution to those conflicts in harmony helps land resource security.展开更多
Keita region is largely dependent on agriculture and livestock as the main economic activities with about 90% of the population are actively engaged in rural activities. However, these activities are dwindling at a ra...Keita region is largely dependent on agriculture and livestock as the main economic activities with about 90% of the population are actively engaged in rural activities. However, these activities are dwindling at a rate that corresponds with increase in the ecosystem’s vulnerability. The following study focused on land use/land cover change in Keita. The study aims to better understand changes through diachronic analysis by integrating remote sensing and GIS. There was an interpretation of satellites imagery (1975, 1984, 1995 and 2001), and statistical techniques were used to provide quantitative analysis of land use/cover change information and drivers underlying in the study area. The changes are affected by simultaneous influence of successive droughts (1973-1974 and 1983-1984) that have transformed ecological balance, anthropogenic and livestock impacts, ecosystems degradation and policies. The land use temporal dynamics are undergone continual degradation of vegetation, the state of land saturation results in conflicts between farmer and herders, the drop in grazing areas, bare land expansion, the erosion of stream bed, and the decline in flooded plain.展开更多
The Ordos Basin is the largest continental multi-energy mineral basin in China,which is rich in coal,oil and gas,and uranium resources.The exploitation of mineral resources is closely related to reservoir water.The ch...The Ordos Basin is the largest continental multi-energy mineral basin in China,which is rich in coal,oil and gas,and uranium resources.The exploitation of mineral resources is closely related to reservoir water.The chemical properties of reservoir water are very important for reservoir evaluation and are significant indicators of the sealing of reservoir oil and gas resources.Therefore,the caprock of the Chang 6 reservoir in the Yanchang Formation was evaluated.The authors tested and analyzed the chemical characteristics of water samples selected from 30 wells in the Chang 6 reservoir of Ansai Oilfield in the Ordos Basin.The results show that the Chang 6 reservoir water in Ansai Oilfield is dominated by calcium-chloride water type with a sodium chloride coefficient of generally less than 0.5.The chloride magnesium coefficients are between 33.7 and 925.5,most of which are greater than 200.The desulfurization coefficients range from 0.21 to 13.4,with an average of 2.227.The carbonate balance coefficients are mainly concentrated below 0.01,with an average of 0.008.The calcium and magnesium coefficients are between 0.08 and 0.003,with an average of 0.01.Combined with the characteristics of the four-corner layout of the reservoir water,the above results show that the graphics are basically consistent.The study indicates that the Chang 6 reservoir in Ansai Oilfield in the Ordos Basin is a favorable block for oil and gas storage with good sealing properties,great preservation conditions of oil and gas,and high pore connectivity.展开更多
Opuntia ficus-indica(L.)Miller is a CAM(crassulacean acid metabolism)plant with an extraordinary capacity to adapt to drought stress by its ability to fix atmospheric CO_(2) at nighttime,store a significant amount of ...Opuntia ficus-indica(L.)Miller is a CAM(crassulacean acid metabolism)plant with an extraordinary capacity to adapt to drought stress by its ability to fix atmospheric CO_(2) at nighttime,store a significant amount of water in cladodes,and reduce root growth.Plants that grow in moisture-stress conditions with thick and less fine root hairs have a strong symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi(AMF)to adapt to drought stress.Water stress can limit plant growth and biomass production,which can be rehabilitated by AMF association through improved physiological performance.The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of AMF inoculations and variable soil water levels on the biomass,photosynthesis,and water use efficiency of the spiny and spineless O.ficus-indica.The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse with a full factorial experiment using O.ficus-indica type(spiny or spineless),AMF(presence or absence),and four soil water available(SWA)treatments through seven replications.Water treatments applied were 0%–25%SWA(T1),25%–50%SWA(T2),50%–75%SWA(T3),and 75%–100%SWA(T4).Drought stress reduced biomass and cladode growth,while AMF colonization significantly increased the biomass production with significant changes in the physiological performance of O.ficus-indica.AMF presence significantly increased biomass of both O.ficus-indica plant types through improved growth,photosynthetic water use efficiency,and photosynthesis.The presence of spines on the surface of cladodes significantly reduced the rate of photosynthesis and photosynthetic water use efficiency.Net photosynthesis,photosynthetic water use efficiency,transpiration,and stomatal conductance rate significantly decreased with increased drought stress.Under drought stress,some planted mother cladodes with the absence of AMF have not established daughter cladodes,whereas AMF-inoculated mother cladodes fully established daughter cladodes.AMF root colonization significantly increased with the decrease of SWA.AMF caused an increase in biomass production,increased tolerance to drought stress,and improved photosynthesis and water use efficiency performance of O.ficus-indica.The potential of O.ficus-indica to adapt to drought stress is controlled by the morpho-physiological performance related to AMF association.展开更多
Biochar is a potential micro-environment for soil microorganisms but evidence to support this suggestion is limited. We explored imaging techniques to visualize and quantify fungal colonization of habitable spaces in ...Biochar is a potential micro-environment for soil microorganisms but evidence to support this suggestion is limited. We explored imaging techniques to visualize and quantify fungal colonization of habitable spaces in a biochar made from a woody feedstock. In addition to characterization of the biochar, it was necessary to optimize preparation and observation methodologies for examining fungal colonization of the biochar. Biochar surfaces and pores were investigated using several microscopy techniques. Biochar particles were compared in soilless media and after deposition in soil. Scanning electron microscopy(SEM) observations and characterization of the biochar demonstrated structural heterogeneity within and among biochar particles. Fungal colonization in and on biochar particles was observed using light, fluorescence and electron microscopy. Fluorescent brightener RR 2200 was more effective than Calcofluor White as a hyphal stain. Biochar retrieved from soil and observed using fluorescence microscopy exhibited distinct hyphal networks on external biochar surfaces. The extent of hyphal colonization of biochar incubated in soil was much less than for biochar artificially inoculated with fungi in a soilless medium. The location of fungal hyphae was more clearly visible using SEM than with fluorescence microscopy. Observations of biochar particles colonized by hyphae from soil posed a range of difficulties including obstruction by the presence of soil particles on biochar surfaces and inside pores. Extensive hyphal colonization of the surface of the biochar in the soilless medium contrasted with limited hyphal colonization of pores within the biochar. Both visualization and quantification of hyphal colonization of surfaces and pores of biochar were restricted by two-dimensional imaging associated with uneven biochar surfaces and variable biochar pore structure. There was very little colonization of biochar from hyphae in the agricultural soil used in this study.展开更多
基金supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China(2022YFB3903503)the National Natural Science Foundation of China(U1901601)the Science and Technology Project of the Department of Education of Jiangxi Province,China(GJJ210541)。
文摘Various land use and land cover(LULC)products have been produced over the past decade with the development of remote sensing technology.Despite the differences in LULC classification schemes,there is a lack of research on assessing the accuracy of their application to croplands in a unified framework.Thus,this study evaluated the spatial and area accuracies of cropland classification for four commonly used global LULC products(i.e.,MCD12Q1V6,GlobCover2009,FROM-GLC and GlobeLand30)based on the harmonised FAO criterion,and quantified the relationships between four factors(i.e.,slope,elevation,field size and crop system)and cropland classification agreement.The validation results indicated that MCD12Q1 and GlobeLand30 performed well in cropland classification regarding spatial consistency,with overall accuracies of 94.90 and 93.52%,respectively.The FROMGLC showed the worst performance,with an overall accuracy of 83.17%.Overlaying the cropland generated by the four global LULC products,we found the proportions of complete agreement and disagreement were 15.51 and 44.72% for the cropland classification,respectively.High consistency was mainly observed in the Northeast China Plain,the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain and the northern part of the Middle-lower Yangtze Plain,China.In contrast,low consistency was detected primarily on the eastern edge of the northern and semiarid region,the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and southern China.Field size was the most important factor for mapping cropland.For area accuracy,compared with China Statistical Yearbook data at the provincial scale,the accuracies of different products in descending order were:GlobeLand30,FROM-GLC,MCD12Q1,and GlobCover2009.The cropland classification schemes mainly caused large area deviations among the four products,and they also resulted in the different ranks of spatial accuracy and area accuracy among the four products.Our results can provide valuable suggestions for selecting cropland products at the national or provincial scale and help cropland mapping and reconstruction,which is essential for food security and crop management,so they can also contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals issued by the United Nations.
基金supported by the Sustainable Forest Management Project with the Local Communities in Tigray,northern Ethiopia,which was funded by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation(NORAD)under the Norwegian Programme for Capacity Development in Higher EducationResearch for Development(NORHED)Programme(ETH 13/0018)+4 种基金the Ecological Organic Agriculture Project,Mekelle University,Ethiopiathe Institute of International Education-Scholars Rescue Fund(IIE-SRF)Norwegian University of Life Sciences(NMBU)Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management(MINA)NORGLOBAL 2 Project in Ethiopia(303600)for supporting the research。
文摘Proposed agroforestry options should begin with the species that farmers are most familiar with,which would be the native multipurpose trees that have evolved under smallholder farms and socioeconomic conditions.The African birch(Anogeissus leiocarpa(DC.)Guill.&Perr.)and pink jacaranda(Stereospermum kunthianum Cham.)trees are the dominant species in the agroforestry parkland system in the drylands of Tigray,Ethiopia.Smallholder farmers highly value these trees for their multifunctional uses including timber,firewood,charcoal,medicine,etc.These trees also could improve soil fertility.However,the amount of soil physical and chemical properties enhanced by the two species must be determined to maintain the sustainable conservation of the species in the parklands and to scale up to similar agroecological systems.Hence,we selected twelve isolated trees,six from each species that had similar dendrometric characteristics and were growing in similar environmental conditions.We divided the canopy cover of each tree into three radial distances:mid-canopy,canopy edge,and canopy gap(control).At each distance,we took soil samples from three different depths.We collected 216 soil samples(half disturbed and the other half undisturbed)from each canopy position and soil depth.Bulk density(BD),soil moisture content(SMC),soil organic carbon(SOC),total nitrogen(TN),available phosphorus(AP),available potassium(AK),p H,electrical conductivity(EC),and cation exchange capacity(CEC)were analysed.Results revealed that soil physical and chemical properties significantly improved except for soil texture and EC under both species,CEC under A.leiocarpus,and soil p H under S.kunthianum,all the studied soils were improved under both species canopy as compared with canopy gap.SMC,TN,AP,and AK under canopy of these trees were respectively 24.1%,11.1%,55.0%,and 9.3% higher than those soils under control.The two parkland agroforestry species significantly enhanced soil fertility near the canopy of topsoil through improving soil physical and chemical properties.These two species were recommended in the drylands with similar agro-ecological systems.
基金the financial support provided by the Flemish Interuniversity Council (VLIR) of Belgium in favour of the first author
文摘Rangeland degradation is a serious problem throughout sub-Saharan Africa and its restoration is a challenge for the management of arid and semi-arid areas. In Lake Baringo Basin of Kenya, communities and individual farmers are restoring indigenous vegetation inside enclosures in an effort to combat severe land degradation and address their livelihood problems. This study evaluated the impact of enclosure management on soil properties and microbial biomass, being key indicators of soil ecosystem health. Six reseeded communal enclosures using soil embankments as water-harvesting structures and strictly regulated access were selected, varying in age from 13 to 23 years. In six private enclosures, ranging from 3 to 17 years in age, individual farmers emulated the communal enclosure strategy and restored areas for their exclusive use. Significant decreases in bulk density, and increases in the soil organic carbon, total nitrogen and microbial biomass contents and stocks were found in the enclosures as compared with the degraded open rangeland. In the private enclosures, the impact of rehabilitation on the soil quality was variable, and soil quality was in general lower than that obtained under communal management. The significant increase of absolute stocks of carbon, nitrogen and microbial biomass compared to the degraded open rangeland indicates the potential for the restoration of soil quality through range rehabilitation. Over-sowing with indigenous legume fodder species could improve total nitrogen content in the soil and nutritional value of the pastures as well.
基金This paper was supported by Universiti Putra Malaysia,Innohub Grant Scheme(Vote No.9005004)D’Khairan Farm Sdn Bhd(Vote No.6300349).
文摘Drought stress is a major factor affecting plant growth and crop yield production.Plant extracts as natural biostimulants hold great potential to strengthen plants to overcome drought impacts.To explore the effect of Polygonum minus extract(PME)in enhancing drought tolerance in plants,a study was set up in a glasshouse environment using 10 different treatment combinations.PME foliar application were designed in CRD and effects were closely observed related to the growth,physiology,and antioxidant system changes in maize(Zea mays L.)under well-watered and drought conditions.The seaweed extract(SWE)was used as a comparison.Plants subjected to drought stress exhibited a significant reduction in fresh weight,dry weight,relative water content(RWC),and soluble sugar,but they stimulated the phenolic,flavonoid,proline,glutathione(GSH),malondialdehyde(MDA)and antioxidant enzyme(catalase,CAT;peroxidase,POD;superoxide dismutase,SOD)activities.Foliar application of PME improved fresh and dry weight(FW:33.1%~41.4%;DW:48.0%~43.1%),chlorophyll content(Chl b:87.9%~100.76%),soluble sugar(23.6%~49.3%),and soluble protein(48.6%~56.9%)as well as antioxidant enzyme activities(CAT and POD)compared to CK under drought conditions.while decreasing the level of MDA.Notably,the mitigating effect of PME application with high concentration was more effective than those of SWE.Our study reveals that PME could alleviate drought stress by regulating osmoprotectant content and antioxidant defense system and can be used as an economical and environmentally friendly biostimulants for promoting maize growth under drought stress.
基金This research was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia via the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme(FRGS/1/2020/WAB03/UPM/02/1)。
文摘Tropical peat comprises decomposed dead plant material and acts like a sponge to absorb water,making it fully saturated.However,drought periods dry it readily and increases its vulnerability to fire.Peat fires emit greenhouse gases and particles contributing to haze,and prevention by constructing fire-break canals to reduce fire spread into forest reserves is crucial.This paper aims to determine peat physical and chemical properties near a fire-break canal at different fire frequency areas.Peat sampling was conducted at two forest reserves in Malaysia which represent low fire frequency and high fire frequency areas.The results show that peat properties were not affected by the construction of a fire-break canal,however lignin and cellulose content increased significantly from the distance of the canal in both areas.The study concluded that fire frequency did not significantly influence peat properties except for porosity.The higher fibre content in the high frequency area did not influence moisture content nor the ability to regain moisture.Thus,fire frequency might contribute differently to changes in physical and chemical properties,hence management efforts to construct fire-break canals and restoration efforts should protect peatlands from further degradation.These findings will benefit future management and planning for forest reserves.
基金Under the auspices of National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40701177)
文摘This paper explores the potential to improve the impervious surface estimation accuracy using a multi-stage approach on the basis of vegetation-impervious surface-soil (V-I-S) model. In the first stage of Spectral Mixture Analysis (SMA) process, pixel purity index, a quantitative index for defining endmember quality, and a 3-dimensional endmember selection method were applied to refining endmembers. In the second stage, instead of obtaining impervious surface fraction by adding high and low albedo fractions directly, a linear regression model was built between impervious surface and high/low albedo using a random sampling method. The urban impervious surface distribution in the urban central area of Shanghai was predicted by the linear regression model. Estimation accuracy of spectral mixture analysis and impervious surface fraction were assessed using root mean square (RMS) and color aerial photography respectively. In comparison with three different research methods, this improved estimation method has a higher overall accuracy than traditional Linear Spectral Mixture Analysis (LSMA) method and the normalized SMA model both in root mean square error (RMSE) and standard error (SE). However, the model has a tendency to overestimate the impervious surface distribution.
文摘Validity of CA-Markov in land use and cover change simulation was investigated at the Langat Basin, Selangor, Malaysia. CA-Markov validation was performed using validation metrics, allocation disagreement, quantity disagreement, and figure of merit in a three-dimensional space. The figure of merit, quantity error, and allocation error for total landscape simulation using the 1990-1997 calibration data were 5.62%, 3.53%, and 6.13%, respectively. CA-Markov showed a poor performance for land use and cover change simulation due to uncertainties in the source data, the model, and future land use and cover change processes in the study area.
基金supported by the National Key R&D Program of China(Grant No.2016YFC0501103)the National Natural Science Foundation of China[Grant No.420701250].
文摘Opencast coal mining has a large impact on the land surface,both at the mining pits themselves and at waste sites.After artifcial management is stopped,a reclaimed opencast coal mine dump is afected by wind and water erosion from natural processes,resulting in land degradation and even safety incidents.In this paper,the soil erosion and land degradation after 5 years of such natural processes,at the Xilinhot opencast coal mine dump in Inner Mongolia,were investigated.A multisource data acquisition method was applied:the vegetation fraction coverage(VFC)was extracted from GF-1 satellite imagery,high-precision terrain characteristics and the location and degree of soil erosion were obtained using a drone,and the physical properties of the topsoil were obtained by feld sampling.On this basis,the degree and spatial distribution of erosion cracks were identifed,and the causes of soil erosion and land degradation were analyzed using the geographical detector.The results show that(1)multi-source data acquisition method can provide efective basic data for the quantitative evaluation of the ecological environment at dumps,and(2)slope aspect and VFC are the main factors afecting the degree of degradation and soil erosion.Based on above analysis,several countermeasures are proposed to mitigate land degradation:(1)The windward slope be designed to imitate the natural landform.(2)Reasonable engineering measures should be applied at the slope to restrain soil erosion.(3)The Pioneer plants should be widely planted on the platform at the early stage of reclamation.
文摘Forest cover and land use change directly impact biological diversity worldwide,contribute to climate change and affect the ability of biological systems to support human needs by altering ecosystem services. Given the forest land use characteristics and ecosystem types in Luang Namtha Province,Lao PDR,the forest cover and land cover category of Luang Namtha Province were divided into six classes,i.e.,current forest(CF) ,potential forest(PF) ,other wooded areas(OW) ,permanent agricultural land(PA) ,other non-forest areas(NF) and water(W) . In first instance,earlier geographic information data(GIS data) of forest cover and land use during 1992 and 2002 was obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry(MAF) ,Lao PDR. Two steps of forest land use change assessment were conducted by the MAF,i.e.,plot sampling on satellite image maps(SIMs) to detect the changes of forest cover and land use during 1992 and 2002 for the entire Luang Namtha Province and field verification in order to identify causes of the changes. Secondly,dynamic information of the forest land cover changes during this ten-year period was calculated by means of map algebra in ArcGIS 9.2. Thirdly,based on the theory of ecosystem service functions and the service function values of different global ecosystems,the value of the six forest cover and land use categories in the province was obtained. Finally,ecological environmental effects,produced by the regional land cover changes over the study period,were calculated.
基金Supported by Major National Social Science Fund Project(09&ZD047)Special Nonprofit Industry Research Project of the Ministry of Land and Resources(201211028)+1 种基金"The Twelfth Five-Year Plan" National Science and Technology Support Program(2012BAB11B02)PhD Graduate Program of CSC(201406360090)
文摘At present,China is facing rapid economic and social development as well as the shortage of land for construction. In fact,various countries and regions are faced with similar problems in the process of urbanization and industrialization,and the land readjustment is often adopted for construction land consolidation to promote economical and intensive land use and solve the supply and demand conflict of construction land. Based on the land readjustment experience of Germany,Japan,China Taiwan and South Korea,we perform a comparative analysis on the implementation background,concept,purpose,procedures and core principles,and borrow ideas from their experience,in order to provide a reference for China to adopt suitable land readjustment tools during construction land consolidation.
文摘This study identified the importance of watershed attributes for water resource management using ArcGIS software, ASTER DEM and satellite images for the Chelekot micro-watershed, Tigray, Ethiopia. The study also evaluate the different hydrological parameters which are significant for the water resource management within the micro-watershed and finds the alternative solutions for water harvesting in the study area through the introduction of suitable soil and water conservation structures based on the finding. Principal watershed attributes including drainage pattern, topographic parameters, land use types, and soil types were evaluated and interpreted for the study micro-watershed. ArcGIS software was used for the computation, delineation of the boundary and morphometric analysis of the micro-watershed using topographical maps and ASTER DEM data. Results indicate that the micro-watershed has classified as a dendritic pattern with stream orders ranging from first to fifth order. The micro-watershed has homogeneity in texture and lack of structural control of surface flow. The drainage density is medium which indicates the area contains soils with medium infiltration rates and moderate relief. Drainage texture, stream frequency and the form factor of the micro-watershed are 4.1, 1.7 and 0.4 respectively. The bifurcation ratio of the micro-watershed ranges from 1 to 4.5 and the elongation ratio is 0.7 which reveals that the micro-watershed belongs to the less elongated shaped micro-watershed category. The mean bifurcation ratio of the whole micro-watershed is 3.3 indicating that the drainage pattern is not greatly influenced by geological structures. The micro-watershed land covers includes: cultivated land (75.8%), settlement and open land (10.5%), shrubs and plantation (13.2%), and water body (0.4%). The major soil types are Vertisol (58%), Camisole (32%), Regosol (9.5%) and Luvisol (0.7%). The textural classes are clay (5%), silty clay (22%), clay loam (17%), sandy loam (21%) and loam (35%) based on the soil textural map of the micro-watershed. Our results revealed that using GIS and ASTER DEM data based watershed morphometric analysis and hydrological evaluation at watershed scale is more applied and precise compared to other available techniques.
文摘Evaluation of the changes in land use and land cover change (LULCC) in respect to oil exploration across the Albertine region in Uganda has been focused around the exploration areas and protected areas, with no attention to the potential impacts of evictees’ activities on resettled areas. This study used LANDSAT images to analyze the land use and land cover changes (LULCC) among the period before eviction (2002 and 2005) at the climax of eviction and resettlements (2005-2011), and during the post-resettlement period (2011-2015) to quantify the impacts of resettlements on the environment. LANDSAT images were processed using ERDAS IMAGINE software and analyzed using ArcGIS 10.1 to determine LULCC in relation to post-eviction resettlement in the study area. Results from the study indicate. The results of the study indicate that vegetation reduced by 33.08 percent, woodland were converted into settlements by 48 percent while farmlands increased by 18.3 percent. Non vegetated areas increased during resettlements however they reduced five years after eviction which indicated the ability of the ecosystem to stabilize. The study proved that post eviction induced resettlements can yield potential environmental effects to resettled areas. It is important therefore to plan and implement other means of additional source of income and construction materials for evictees to abate vegetation clearance and hence rescue the woodland. The study also recommends maintenance of an optimum population and well-planned pre eviction resettlement schemes.
文摘Watamu Mida creek coastal areas, mainly the shoreline, the mangroves and the general environment have been changing due to the impact of land use change, shoreline erosion, human population pressure and the expansion of tourism sector. This research assesses the impact of land use change on mangrove dynamics and shoreline erosion as well as the main driving factors that cause these changes in Watamu Midacreek. This study uses old aerial photographs (1969 and 1989), current high resolution satellite images World view (2010) and ground truthing in combination with information from the local community to analyze the impact of change in land use from 1969-2010. Land use and cover types were visually interpreted, digitized and delineated using aerial photographs of 1969, 1989 and 2010 satellite images in ArcGIS.9.3.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE 2014 software. The results of the land use change between 1969 and 1989 showed a decline of scrub land, miscellaneous coastal vegetation, coastal bush, thicket with trees and mangroves, whereas new types of land use which emerged during this period were town and barren land. The greatest land use change rate observed between 1969 and 1989 was in miscellaneous coastal vegetation at 2.5%, while coastal bush experienced a significant negative change rate of 6.5%. The main land use changes observed between 1989 and 2010 were increasing coastal bush, an expansion of town and urban areas, hotels and private holiday houses. Encroachments into the mangrove forest have been observed both by local people and foreign private holiday house owners. The change in land use had an impact on shoreline changes as well. Areas mainly covered by old trees, and coastal bushes which protected the shoreline from erosion currently have been converted into very big hotels and several private holiday house complexes. The main drivers of land use change were human population growth and policy (through weakness of law enforcement). Policies and regulations which are not currently implemented need to be updated based on the current pressure-state situation, and there should be strong law enforcement and strict regulation to control any unplanned developments along the coast and in the neighboring hinterland.
基金the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province（Grant No.Y606017）.
文摘This paper probes into the relationship among individual benefi ts, benefi ts of the country, common benef its of all humans in land use and land resource security. The following balanced land use model is proposed: the harmo-nious and interactive relationship between man and nature, two main bodies of land ecological system, constitutes the mechanism of land resources security. The feedback relationship between man and nature is the basis for the land resources security and the core is the relationship among people established for the benefi t equilibrium in land use. The conflicts in land use stem from the rarity of land resource and the solution to those conflicts in harmony helps land resource security.
文摘Keita region is largely dependent on agriculture and livestock as the main economic activities with about 90% of the population are actively engaged in rural activities. However, these activities are dwindling at a rate that corresponds with increase in the ecosystem’s vulnerability. The following study focused on land use/land cover change in Keita. The study aims to better understand changes through diachronic analysis by integrating remote sensing and GIS. There was an interpretation of satellites imagery (1975, 1984, 1995 and 2001), and statistical techniques were used to provide quantitative analysis of land use/cover change information and drivers underlying in the study area. The changes are affected by simultaneous influence of successive droughts (1973-1974 and 1983-1984) that have transformed ecological balance, anthropogenic and livestock impacts, ecosystems degradation and policies. The land use temporal dynamics are undergone continual degradation of vegetation, the state of land saturation results in conflicts between farmer and herders, the drop in grazing areas, bare land expansion, the erosion of stream bed, and the decline in flooded plain.
基金supported by the Jiangsu Natural Science Foundation project(SBK2021045820)the Chongqing Natural Science Foundation general Project(cstc2021jcyj-msxmX0624)+1 种基金the Graduate Innovation Program of China University of Mining and Technology(2022WLKXJ002)the Postgraduate Research&Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province(KYCX22_2600).
文摘The Ordos Basin is the largest continental multi-energy mineral basin in China,which is rich in coal,oil and gas,and uranium resources.The exploitation of mineral resources is closely related to reservoir water.The chemical properties of reservoir water are very important for reservoir evaluation and are significant indicators of the sealing of reservoir oil and gas resources.Therefore,the caprock of the Chang 6 reservoir in the Yanchang Formation was evaluated.The authors tested and analyzed the chemical characteristics of water samples selected from 30 wells in the Chang 6 reservoir of Ansai Oilfield in the Ordos Basin.The results show that the Chang 6 reservoir water in Ansai Oilfield is dominated by calcium-chloride water type with a sodium chloride coefficient of generally less than 0.5.The chloride magnesium coefficients are between 33.7 and 925.5,most of which are greater than 200.The desulfurization coefficients range from 0.21 to 13.4,with an average of 2.227.The carbonate balance coefficients are mainly concentrated below 0.01,with an average of 0.008.The calcium and magnesium coefficients are between 0.08 and 0.003,with an average of 0.01.Combined with the characteristics of the four-corner layout of the reservoir water,the above results show that the graphics are basically consistent.The study indicates that the Chang 6 reservoir in Ansai Oilfield in the Ordos Basin is a favorable block for oil and gas storage with good sealing properties,great preservation conditions of oil and gas,and high pore connectivity.
基金supported by the Ethiopian Ministry of Education.
文摘Opuntia ficus-indica(L.)Miller is a CAM(crassulacean acid metabolism)plant with an extraordinary capacity to adapt to drought stress by its ability to fix atmospheric CO_(2) at nighttime,store a significant amount of water in cladodes,and reduce root growth.Plants that grow in moisture-stress conditions with thick and less fine root hairs have a strong symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi(AMF)to adapt to drought stress.Water stress can limit plant growth and biomass production,which can be rehabilitated by AMF association through improved physiological performance.The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of AMF inoculations and variable soil water levels on the biomass,photosynthesis,and water use efficiency of the spiny and spineless O.ficus-indica.The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse with a full factorial experiment using O.ficus-indica type(spiny or spineless),AMF(presence or absence),and four soil water available(SWA)treatments through seven replications.Water treatments applied were 0%–25%SWA(T1),25%–50%SWA(T2),50%–75%SWA(T3),and 75%–100%SWA(T4).Drought stress reduced biomass and cladode growth,while AMF colonization significantly increased the biomass production with significant changes in the physiological performance of O.ficus-indica.AMF presence significantly increased biomass of both O.ficus-indica plant types through improved growth,photosynthetic water use efficiency,and photosynthesis.The presence of spines on the surface of cladodes significantly reduced the rate of photosynthesis and photosynthetic water use efficiency.Net photosynthesis,photosynthetic water use efficiency,transpiration,and stomatal conductance rate significantly decreased with increased drought stress.Under drought stress,some planted mother cladodes with the absence of AMF have not established daughter cladodes,whereas AMF-inoculated mother cladodes fully established daughter cladodes.AMF root colonization significantly increased with the decrease of SWA.AMF caused an increase in biomass production,increased tolerance to drought stress,and improved photosynthesis and water use efficiency performance of O.ficus-indica.The potential of O.ficus-indica to adapt to drought stress is controlled by the morpho-physiological performance related to AMF association.
文摘Biochar is a potential micro-environment for soil microorganisms but evidence to support this suggestion is limited. We explored imaging techniques to visualize and quantify fungal colonization of habitable spaces in a biochar made from a woody feedstock. In addition to characterization of the biochar, it was necessary to optimize preparation and observation methodologies for examining fungal colonization of the biochar. Biochar surfaces and pores were investigated using several microscopy techniques. Biochar particles were compared in soilless media and after deposition in soil. Scanning electron microscopy(SEM) observations and characterization of the biochar demonstrated structural heterogeneity within and among biochar particles. Fungal colonization in and on biochar particles was observed using light, fluorescence and electron microscopy. Fluorescent brightener RR 2200 was more effective than Calcofluor White as a hyphal stain. Biochar retrieved from soil and observed using fluorescence microscopy exhibited distinct hyphal networks on external biochar surfaces. The extent of hyphal colonization of biochar incubated in soil was much less than for biochar artificially inoculated with fungi in a soilless medium. The location of fungal hyphae was more clearly visible using SEM than with fluorescence microscopy. Observations of biochar particles colonized by hyphae from soil posed a range of difficulties including obstruction by the presence of soil particles on biochar surfaces and inside pores. Extensive hyphal colonization of the surface of the biochar in the soilless medium contrasted with limited hyphal colonization of pores within the biochar. Both visualization and quantification of hyphal colonization of surfaces and pores of biochar were restricted by two-dimensional imaging associated with uneven biochar surfaces and variable biochar pore structure. There was very little colonization of biochar from hyphae in the agricultural soil used in this study.
