In the Alpine Corsica(France),the Santa Lucia Nappe represents a peculiar unit preserving the unique relicts of Paleozoic lower to medium continental crust.It consists of composite basement affected by Permian granuli...In the Alpine Corsica(France),the Santa Lucia Nappe represents a peculiar unit preserving the unique relicts of Paleozoic lower to medium continental crust.It consists of composite basement affected by Permian granulite facies metamorphic conditions unconformably covered by a Late Cretaceous clastic sequence(Tomboni Conglomerate and Tralonca Flysch)affected by polyphase deformation and low-grade-metamorphism.In this work,we present a new reconstruction of the deformation events registered by the Tralonca Flysch during the Alpine orogeny.The D1 phase was testified by rare isoclinal folds.The D2 phase produced a continuous foliation and a map-scale sheath-fold with a top-to-W sense of shear.The D3 phase produced E-verging non-cylindrical folds and S3 crenulation cleavage that is not associated to metamorphic blastesis.We present the first temperature-pressure-deformation(P-T-d)path for the Tralonca Flysch,demonstrating that the Santa Lucia Nappe underwent accretion and then first stage exhumation in the Alpine wedge during the D1 phase with pressure and temperature peaks both occurred under blueschist metamorphic conditions.The D2 phase occurred at lower pressure-temperature conditions during a second stage exhumation.This pressure-temperaturedeformation path is comparable with those of the Lower Units(i.e.,the subducted continental units of Alpine Corsica)suggesting a common geodynamic history.展开更多
In this paper, we analyze the enthalpy, enthalpy energy density, thermodynamic volume, and the equation of state of a modified white hole. We obtain new possible mathematical connections with some sectors of Number Th...In this paper, we analyze the enthalpy, enthalpy energy density, thermodynamic volume, and the equation of state of a modified white hole. We obtain new possible mathematical connections with some sectors of Number Theory, Ramanujan Recurring Numbers, DN Constant and String Theory, that enable us to extract the quantum geometrical properties of these thermodynamic equations and the implication to the quantum vacuum spacetime geometry of our early universe as they act as the constraints to the nature of quantum gravity of the universe.展开更多
This paper is a review, a thesis, of some interesting results that have been obtained in various research concerning the “brane collisions in string and M-theory” (Cyclic Universe), p-adic inflation and p-adic cosmo...This paper is a review, a thesis, of some interesting results that have been obtained in various research concerning the “brane collisions in string and M-theory” (Cyclic Universe), p-adic inflation and p-adic cosmology. In Section 2, we have described some equations concerning cosmic evolution in a Cyclic Universe. In Section 3, we have described some equations concerning the cosmological perturbations in a Big Crunch/Big Bang space-time, the M-theory model of a Big Crunch/Big Bang transition and some equations concerning the solution of a braneworld Big Crunch/Big Bang Cosmology. In Section 4, we have described some equations concerning the generating ekpyrotic curvature perturbations before the Big Bang, some equations concerning the effective five-dimensional theory of the strongly coupled heterotic string as a gauged version of N=1five-dimensional supergravity with four-dimensional boundaries, and some equations concerning the colliding branes and the origin of the Hot Big Bang. In Section 5, we have described some equations regarding the “null energy condition” violation concerning the inflationary models and some equations concerning the evolution to a smooth universe in an ekpyrotic contracting phase with w>1. In Section 6, we have described some equations concerning the approximate inflationary solutions rolling away from the unstable maximum of p-adic string theory. In Section 7, we have described various equations concerning the p-adic minisuperspace model, zeta strings, zeta nonlocal scalar fields and p-adic and adelic quantum cosmology. In Section 8, we have shown various and interesting mathematical connections between some equations concerning the p-adic inflation, the p-adic quantum cosmology, the zeta strings and the brane collisions in string and M-theory. Furthermore, in each section, we have shown the mathematical connections with various sectors of Number Theory, principally the Ramanujan’s modular equations, the Aurea Ratio and the Fibonacci’s numbers.展开更多
The need to standardise stratigraphical subdivisions of continuous marine sedimentary successions that outcrop for hundreds metres, using clearly defined points fixed in the field is strongly felt. A proposal is prese...The need to standardise stratigraphical subdivisions of continuous marine sedimentary successions that outcrop for hundreds metres, using clearly defined points fixed in the field is strongly felt. A proposal is presented here to formalize regional stages for the Lower Pleistocene （Calabrian） and for the Middle Pleistocene （Ionian） in Italy. The sections are well exposed, carefully investigated using multiple criteria （an integrated stratigraphical approach） and located in the central part of the Mediterranean. This area is recognized worldwide as a classical region for the Neogene and the Pleistocene sequences. The terrestrial record is directly correlated with the deep-sea record, as determined from ODP Sites 653 （Tyrrhenian Sea）, 963 （Sicily Channel） and 964 （Ionian Sea）from the central Mediterranean. The present formal proposal is consistent with the INQUA and ICS decision to define and correlate the Plio/Pleistocene boundary （GSSP at Vrica） within the Olduvai Subchron, at 1.81 My, the Lower/Middle Pleistocene boundary at the Matuyama/Brunhes reversal at 0. 78 My and the Middle/ Upper Pleistocene boundary with the base of MIS 5, approximately 0. 13My. The present proposal also is consistent with the call for stage unit stratotypes that emphasize both the physical content of a stage and its boundaries （Hilgen et al., 2006）.展开更多
Two complete specimens from the Pelsonian （Middle Anisian, Middle Triassic） of Luoping, Yunnan Province, South China are referred to a new actinopterygian genus, Luopingichthys gen. nov., and ascribed to the perleid...Two complete specimens from the Pelsonian （Middle Anisian, Middle Triassic） of Luoping, Yunnan Province, South China are referred to a new actinopterygian genus, Luopingichthys gen. nov., and ascribed to the perleidiform family Polzbergidae based especially on a typical synapomorphy of a peculiar premaxillary-maxillary complex, i.e., the fusion between premaxillary and maxillary along the antero-dorsal margin of the maxillary. The new taxon differs from other deep-bodied representatives of the family, Felberia and Stoppania, in its fusiform or deep fusiform body shape; sickle-shaped preopercular with short infraorbital process; lack of modified scales at the base of the anal fin; the short-based dorsal fin; scarcely ornamented scales; and thin anterior teeth. Based on a redescription of the holotype of the taxon Ctenognathichthys hattichi from the Middle Triassic （Ladinian） Prosanto Formation, Canton Graubiinden, eastern Switzerland, the only known specimen, which shows the same fusion between premaxillary and maxillary, the systematic position of the species is clarified and the taxon is proposed to be a further representative of the family Polzbergidae, and is transferred to the new genus.展开更多
The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point （GSSP） for the base of the Ladinian Stage （Middle Triassic） is defined in the Caffaro river bed （45°49＇09.5＂N, 10°28＇15.5＂E）, south of the village o...The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point （GSSP） for the base of the Ladinian Stage （Middle Triassic） is defined in the Caffaro river bed （45°49＇09.5＂N, 10°28＇15.5＂E）, south of the village of Bagolino （Province of Brescia, northern Italy）, at the base of a 15-20-cm-thick limestone bed overlying a distinct groove （＂Chiesense groove ＂） of limestone nodules in a shaly matrix, located about 5 m above the base of the Buchenstein Formation. The lower surface of the thick limestone bed has the lowest occurrence of the ammonoid Eoprotrachyceras curionii （base of the E. curionii Zone; onset of the Trachyceratidae ammonoid family）. Secondary global markers in the uppermost Anisian include the lowest occurrence of conodont Neogondolella praehungafica and a brief normal-polarity magnetic zone recognized in closely correlated sections including the principal auxiliary section at Seceda in the Dolomites. The GSSP-level is bracketed by U-Pb single zircon age data from volcaniclastic horizons, indicating a boundary age of ca 241 Ma.展开更多
We report equilibrium sapphirine ＋ quartz assemblage in biotite-orthopyroxene-garnet granulites from a new locality in Panasapattu of Paderu region in the Eastern Ghats granulite belt, which provide new evidence for ...We report equilibrium sapphirine ＋ quartz assemblage in biotite-orthopyroxene-garnet granulites from a new locality in Panasapattu of Paderu region in the Eastern Ghats granulite belt, which provide new evidence for ultrahigh-temperature （UHT） metamorphism at 1030-1050 ℃ and 10 kbar in this region. The development of migmatitic texture, stabilization of the garnet-orthopyroxene- plagioclase-K-feldspar association, prograde biotite inclusions within garnet and sapphirine as well as sapphirine and cordierite inclusions within garnet in these granulites indicate that the observed peak assemblages probably formed during prograde dehydration melting of a Bt-Sill-Qtz assemblage, and constrain the prograde stage of the p--T path. The core domains of orthopyroxene porphyroblasts have up to w（Al203） 9.6%, which suggest that the temperatures reached up to 1150 ~C suggesting extreme crustal metamorphism. These conditions were also confirmed by the garnet-orthopyroxene thermobar- ometery, which yields a p--T range of 1012--960 ~C and 9.4 kbar. The p--T phase topologies computed using isochemical sections calculated in the model system Na20-CaO-K20--FeO-MgO-A1203-SiO2 --H2O （NCKFMASH） for metapelites, garnet-free sapphirine granulites and garnet-bearing sapphirine granulites match the melt-bearing assemblages observed in these rocks. Isochemical sections constructed in the NCKFMASH system for an average sub-aluminous metapelite bulk composition, and contoured for modal proportions of melt and garnet, as well as for the compositional isopleths of garnet, predict phase and reaction relations that are consistent with those observed in the rocks. Garnet and orthopyroxene contain Ti-rich phlogopite inclusions, suggesting formation by prograde melting reactions at the expense of phlogopite during ultrahigh-temperature conditions. These p--T results underestimate ＇peak＇ condi- tions, in part as a result of the modification of garnet compositions in the domains where some melt was retained. The post-peak evolution is constrained by a succession of melt-present reactions that occur at p 〈 10 kbar, inferred from micro-structural relations among various minerals. After high-temperature decompression from the metamorphic peak, the p--T path followed a near isobaric cooling stage to T 〈 900℃. The UHT rocks investigated in this study occur within a continental collision suture which witnessed prolonged subduction-accretion history prior to the final collision. We correlate the extreme metamorphism and the stabilization of UHT mineral assemblages to heat and volatile input from an upwelled asthenosphere during subduction--collision tectonics in a Proterozoic convergent plate margin.展开更多
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD) is emerging as one of the most common liver diseases,leading to the increasing interest for new therapeutic approaches for its treatment.NAFLD primarily depends on a hypercalor...Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD) is emerging as one of the most common liver diseases,leading to the increasing interest for new therapeutic approaches for its treatment.NAFLD primarily depends on a hypercaloric and/or unbalanced diet leading to overweight and obesity.The liver,in fact,plays a central role in lipid metabolism by importing free fatty acids from the blood and synthesizing,storing,oxidizing and exporting lipids.Furthermore,the liver is the target for the thyroid hormones,thyroxine(T4) and 3,3',5-triiodo-L-thyronine(T3),that stimulate the basal metabolic rate and lead to body weight loss.In the last decade,other iodothyronines have been shown to possess biological relevance and play some thyromimetic activities; in particular,3,5-diiodo-L-thyronine(T2) gained large interest.The global effect of iodothyronines on liver lipid metabolism results from the balance between direct and indirect actions on the hepatocyte,leading to stimulation of lipid synthesis,oxidation and autophagy.In this review,the results so far obtained on both in vivo and in vitro models of hepatosteatosis are summarized in order to obtain an updated picture of the lipid-lowering effects of iodothyronines on mammalian liver.展开更多
The compositional variability of the lithospheric mantle at extensional settings is largely caused by the reactive percolation of uprising melts in the thermal boundary layer and in lithospheric environments.The Alpin...The compositional variability of the lithospheric mantle at extensional settings is largely caused by the reactive percolation of uprising melts in the thermal boundary layer and in lithospheric environments.The Alpine-Apennine(A-A)ophiolites are predominantly constituted by mantle peridotites and are widely thought to represent analogs of the oceanic lithosphere formed at ocean/continent transition and slow-to ultraslow-spreading settings.Structural and geochemical studies on the A-A mantle peridotites have revealed that they preserve significant compositional and isotopic heterogeneity at variable scale,reflecting a long-lived multi-stage melt migration,intrusion and melt-rock interaction history,occurred at different lithospheric depths during progressive uplift.The A-A mantle peridotites thus constitute a unique window on mantle dynamics and lithosphere-asthenosphere interactions in very slow spreading environments.In this work,we review field,microstructural and chemical-isotopic evidence on the major stages of melt percolation and melt-rock interaction recorded by the A-A peridotites and discuss their consequences in creating chemical-isotopic heterogeneities at variable scales and enhancing weakening and deformation of the extending mantle.Focus will be on three most important stages:(i)old(pre-Jurassic)pyroxenite emplacement,and the significant isotopic modification induced in the host mantle by pyroxenite-derived melts,(ii)melt-peridotite interactions during Jurassic mantle exhumation,i.e.the open-system reactive porous flow at spinel facies depths causing bulk depletion(origin of reactive harzburgites and dunites),and the shallower melt impregnation which originated plagioclase-rich peridotites and an overall mantle refertilization.We infer that migrating melts largely originated as shallow,variably depleted,melt fractions,and acquired Si-rich composition by reactive dissolution of mantle pyroxenes during upward migration.Such melt-rock reaction processes share significant similarities with those documented in modern oceanic peridotites from slow-to ultraslow-spreading environments and track the progressive exhumation of large mantle sectors at shallow depths in oceanic settings where a thicker thermal boundary layer exists,as a consequence of slow-spreading rate.展开更多
We applied a multi-taxa approach integrating the co-occurrence of plants,ground beetles,spiders and springtails with soil parameters(temperatures and chemical characteristics)in order to describe the primary successio...We applied a multi-taxa approach integrating the co-occurrence of plants,ground beetles,spiders and springtails with soil parameters(temperatures and chemical characteristics)in order to describe the primary succession along two glacier forelands in the Maritime Alps(Italy),a hotspot of Mediterranean biodiversity.We compared these successions to those from Central Alps:Maritime glacier forelands markedly differ for their higher values of species richness and species turnover.Contrary to our expectation,Maritime glacier forelands follow a‘replacement change model’,like continental succession of Inner Alps and differently from other peripheral successions.We propose that the temperatures along these Mediterranean glacier forelands are warmer than those along other Alpine glacier forelands,which promote the faster species turnover.Furthermore,we found that early and mid successional stages of the investigated glaciers are richer in cold-adapted and endemic species than the later ones:we confirmed that the‘replacement change’model disadvantages pioneer,cold-adapted species.Given the overall correspondence among coldadapted and endemic species,the most threatened in this climate phase,our results raise new concerns about the extinction risk of these species.We also describe supraglacial habitat of Maritime glaciers demonstrating that supraglacial debris represents an environment decoupled from the regional climate and may have an important role as refugium for coldadapted and hygrophilous plant and animal species,whose survival can be threatened by climate change and by a rapid ecological succession in the adjacent forelands.展开更多
The Durkan Complex is a key tectonic element of the Makran accretionary prism(SE Iran)and it has been interpreted as representing a continental margin succession.We present here a multidisciplinary study of the wester...The Durkan Complex is a key tectonic element of the Makran accretionary prism(SE Iran)and it has been interpreted as representing a continental margin succession.We present here a multidisciplinary study of the western Durkan Complex,which is based on new geological,stratigraphic,biostratigraphic data,as well as geochemical data of the volcanic and meta-volcanic rocks forming this complex.Our data show that this complex consists of distinct tectonic slices showing both non-metamorphic and very low-grade metamorphic deformed successions.Stratigraphic and biostratigraphic data allow us to recognize three types of successions.Type-Ⅰis composed by a Coniacian-early Campanian pelagic succession with intercalation of pillow lavas and minor volcaniclastic rocks.Type-Ⅱsuccession includes a volcanic sequence passing to a volcano-sedimentary sequence with Cenomanian pelagic limestones,followed by a hemipelagic sequence.This succession is characterized by abundant mass-transport deposits.Type-Ⅲsuccession includes volcanic and volcano-sedimentary sequences,which are stratigraphically covered by a Cenomanian platform succession.The latter is locally followed by a hemipelagic sequence.The volcanic rocks in the different successions show alkaline geochemical affinity,suggesting an origin from an oceanic within-plate setting.Our new results indicate that the western Durkan Complex represents fragments of seamounts tectonically incorporated in the Makran accretionary wedge during the latest Late Cretaceous-Paleocene.We propose that incorporation of seamounts in the frontal prism caused a shortening of the whole convergent margin and possibly contributed to controlling the deformation style in the Makran Accretionary Wedge during Late Cretaceous-Paleocene times.展开更多
A broad set of samples from the CVP has been analyzing Pb isotopes. Campanian Volcanic Province (CVP) has been produced by various ranges of mixing between three components: 1) MORB, 2) Hercynian basement and 3) upper...A broad set of samples from the CVP has been analyzing Pb isotopes. Campanian Volcanic Province (CVP) has been produced by various ranges of mixing between three components: 1) MORB, 2) Hercynian basement and 3) upper crust. Anyhow, the upper crust that has modified the Pb isotopic composition also shows trends towards an Achaean upper crust. This is consistent for all Mediterranean area. This is not in contrast with the past plate tectonic reconstruction. Also the surface sediments (GLOSS) may have been a mixing between the Achaean upper crust and a Hercynian component with an implication worldwide due to the rock cycle processes.展开更多
The Graeco-Roman harbor of Neapolis (Naples, Italy), chronologically constrained between the late 4th century BC and the 6th century AD, offers a unique sight on relationship between past and present into the history ...The Graeco-Roman harbor of Neapolis (Naples, Italy), chronologically constrained between the late 4th century BC and the 6th century AD, offers a unique sight on relationship between past and present into the history of the marine biodiversity. In fact, the digs expose fossil leaf of Posidonia oceanica with epiphytic communities of microorganisms. Posidonia oceanica is a seagrass endemic to theMediterraneanthat forms large meadows whose remains can persist in the sediment for thousands of years. In this communication, we report results of analyses carried out using both molecular and morphological techniques on sub-fossil leaves of P. oceanica and their associated epiphytic communities.展开更多
In this study, superficial marine sediments collected from 96 sampling sites were analyzed for 53 inorganic elements. Each sample was digested in aqua regia and analyzed by ICP-MS. A developed multifractal inverse dis...In this study, superficial marine sediments collected from 96 sampling sites were analyzed for 53 inorganic elements. Each sample was digested in aqua regia and analyzed by ICP-MS. A developed multifractal inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation method was applied for the compilation of interpolated maps for both single element and factor scores distributions. R-mode factor analysis have been performed on 23 of 53 analyzed elements. The 3 factor model, accounting 84.9% of data variability, were chosen, The three elemental associations obtained have been very helpful to distinguish anthropogenic from geogenic contribution. The aim of this study is to distinguish distribution patterns of pollutants on the sea floor of NaplesandSalernobays. In general, local lithologies, water dynamic and anthropogenic activities determine the distribution of the analyzed elements. To estimate pollution level in the area, Italian guidance, Canadian sediment quality guidance and Long’s criteria are chosen to set the comparability. As the results shows, arsenic and lead may present highly adverse effect to living creatures.展开更多
Saurichthys dawaziensis sp. nov., from the third member of the Gejiu Formation （Anisian of Middle Triassic） in the vicinity of Luoping, Yunnan Province, is a small to mediumsized saurichthyid fish. It is characteriz...Saurichthys dawaziensis sp. nov., from the third member of the Gejiu Formation （Anisian of Middle Triassic） in the vicinity of Luoping, Yunnan Province, is a small to mediumsized saurichthyid fish. It is characterized by the efferent pseudobranchial arteries penetrating on the parasphenoid and the mandible sensory canal with a branch in the angular. The new species is more derived than the Lower Triassic species in having a relatively narrow postorbital region, short preopercular, single ossification of the sclerotic ring, small haemal arches between the pelvic fins and the anal fin without ossified spines, and in the absence of quadratojugal. It is more primitive than the Middle and Upper Triassic Saurichthys in having fringing fulcra and numerous segments in the unpaired fins, and the presence of both prae- and post-zygapophyses in the neural arches. Some anatomic changes related to the vertebral column and unpaired fins of the genus are also discussed.展开更多
The Canavese Zone(CZ)in the Western Alps represents the remnant of the distal passive margin of the Adria microplate,which was stretched and thinned during the Jurassic opening of the Alpine Tethys.Through detailed ge...The Canavese Zone(CZ)in the Western Alps represents the remnant of the distal passive margin of the Adria microplate,which was stretched and thinned during the Jurassic opening of the Alpine Tethys.Through detailed geological mapping,stratigraphic and structural analyses,we document that the continental break-up of Pangea and tectonic dismemberment of the Adria distal margin,up to mantle rocks exhumation and oceanization,did not simply result from the syn-rift Jurassic extension but was strongly favored by older structu ral inheritances(the Proto-Canavese Shear Zone),which controlled earlier lithospheric weakness.Our findings allowed to redefine in detail(i)the tectono-stratigraphic setting of the Variscan metamorphic basement and the Late Carbonife rous to Early Cretaceous CZ succession,(ii)the role played by inherited Late Carboniferous to Early Triassic structures and(iii)the significance of the CZ in the geodynamic evolution of the Alpine Tethys.The large amount of extensional displacement and crustal thinning occurred during different pulses of Late Carbonife rous-Early Triassic strike-slip tectonics is wellconsistent with the role played by long-lived regional-scale wrench faults(e.g.,the East-Variscan Shear Zone),suggesting a re-discussion of models of mantle exhumation driven by low-angle detachment faults as unique efficient mechanism in stretching and thinning continental crust.展开更多
The study illustrates the critical role of accurate geological structural mapping to delineate crystalline aquifer zones more prone to high health risk due to elevated dissolved As in drinking wells.The analysis revis...The study illustrates the critical role of accurate geological structural mapping to delineate crystalline aquifer zones more prone to high health risk due to elevated dissolved As in drinking wells.The analysis revisits the results from more than 1200 groundwater samples collected over ten years from domestic wells across the Tampere region (Finland).It is demonstrated that the highest dissolved As concentrations in the region (up to 2230 mg/L) are exclusively found near major faults and deformation zones (FDZs) detected via geophysical and geological surveys,and that a clear correlation exists between dissolved concentrations and the distance from the FDZs (r).Almost all values exceeding the drinking water limit (10 mg/L) occur at r < 8 km,while concentrations above 100 mg/L occur at r < 4 km.Solidphase As concentrations in bedrock show less dependency on FDZ than aqueous concentrations.This behavior is explained considering different mechanisms,which include enhanced sulfide oxidation and fracture connectivity,promoting preferential transport of dissolved As to FDZs and mixing of waters from different redox zones,mobilizing preferentially As(III) or As(V).Fe hydro-oxides may also precipitate/ dissolve preferentially because of FDZs,while residence time may influence the contact time between water and As-bearing minerals.It is concluded that the accurate mapping of FDZs,and in general of structural geology,provides an important preliminary information to identify where localized,sitespecific characterization of hydrogeology and geochemistry is more urgent to reduce As-related health risk from groundwater intake.展开更多
Is the westerly rotation of the lithosphere an ephemeral accidental recent phenomenon or is it a stable process of Earth's geodynamics? The reason why the tidal drag has been questioned as the mechanism determinin...Is the westerly rotation of the lithosphere an ephemeral accidental recent phenomenon or is it a stable process of Earth's geodynamics? The reason why the tidal drag has been questioned as the mechanism determining the lithospheric shift relative to the underlying mantle is the apparent too high viscosity of the asthenosphere. However, plate boundaries asymmetries are a robust indication of the 'westerly'decoupling of the entire Earth's outer lithospheric shell and new studies support lower viscosities in the low-velocity layer(LVZ) atop the asthenosphere. Since the solid Earth tide oscillation is longer in one side relative to the other due to the contemporaneous Moon's revolution, we demonstrate that a non-linear rheological behavior is expected in the lithosphere mantle interplay. This may provide a sort of ratchet favoring lowering of the LVZ viscosity under shear, allowing decoupling in the LVZ and triggering the westerly motion of the lithosphere relative to the mantle.展开更多
We propose that the brittle-ductile transition （BDT） controls the seismic cycle. In particular, the movements detected by space geodesy record the steady state deformation in the ductile lower crust, whereas the sti...We propose that the brittle-ductile transition （BDT） controls the seismic cycle. In particular, the movements detected by space geodesy record the steady state deformation in the ductile lower crust, whereas the stick-slip behavior of the brittle upper crust is constrained by its larger friction. GPS data allow analyzing the strain rate along active plate boundaries. In all tectonic settings, we propose that earthquakes primarily occur along active fault segments characterized by relative minima of strain rate, segments which are locked or slowly creeping. We discuss regional examples where large earthquakes happened in areas of relative low strain rate. Regardless the tectonic style, the interseismic stress and strain pattern inverts during the coseismic stage. Where a dilated band formed during the interseismic stage, this will be shortened at the coseismic stage, and vice-versa what was previously shortened, it will be dilated. The interseismic energy accumulation and the coseismic expenditure rather depend on the tectonic setting （extensional, contractional, or strike-slip）. The gravitational potential energy dominates along normal faults, whereas the elastic energy prevails for thrust earthquakes and performs work against the gravity force. The energy budget in strike-slip tectonic setting is also primarily due elastic energy. Therefore, precursors may be different as a function of the tectonic setting. In this model, with a given displacement, the magnitude of an earthquake results from the coseismic slip of the deformed volume above the BDT rather than only on the fault length, and it also depends on the fault kinematics.展开更多
基金supported by the PRIN 2020(P.I.M.Marroni)Fondi Ateneo Grant by The University of Pisa。
文摘In the Alpine Corsica(France),the Santa Lucia Nappe represents a peculiar unit preserving the unique relicts of Paleozoic lower to medium continental crust.It consists of composite basement affected by Permian granulite facies metamorphic conditions unconformably covered by a Late Cretaceous clastic sequence(Tomboni Conglomerate and Tralonca Flysch)affected by polyphase deformation and low-grade-metamorphism.In this work,we present a new reconstruction of the deformation events registered by the Tralonca Flysch during the Alpine orogeny.The D1 phase was testified by rare isoclinal folds.The D2 phase produced a continuous foliation and a map-scale sheath-fold with a top-to-W sense of shear.The D3 phase produced E-verging non-cylindrical folds and S3 crenulation cleavage that is not associated to metamorphic blastesis.We present the first temperature-pressure-deformation(P-T-d)path for the Tralonca Flysch,demonstrating that the Santa Lucia Nappe underwent accretion and then first stage exhumation in the Alpine wedge during the D1 phase with pressure and temperature peaks both occurred under blueschist metamorphic conditions.The D2 phase occurred at lower pressure-temperature conditions during a second stage exhumation.This pressure-temperaturedeformation path is comparable with those of the Lower Units(i.e.,the subducted continental units of Alpine Corsica)suggesting a common geodynamic history.
文摘In this paper, we analyze the enthalpy, enthalpy energy density, thermodynamic volume, and the equation of state of a modified white hole. We obtain new possible mathematical connections with some sectors of Number Theory, Ramanujan Recurring Numbers, DN Constant and String Theory, that enable us to extract the quantum geometrical properties of these thermodynamic equations and the implication to the quantum vacuum spacetime geometry of our early universe as they act as the constraints to the nature of quantum gravity of the universe.
文摘This paper is a review, a thesis, of some interesting results that have been obtained in various research concerning the “brane collisions in string and M-theory” (Cyclic Universe), p-adic inflation and p-adic cosmology. In Section 2, we have described some equations concerning cosmic evolution in a Cyclic Universe. In Section 3, we have described some equations concerning the cosmological perturbations in a Big Crunch/Big Bang space-time, the M-theory model of a Big Crunch/Big Bang transition and some equations concerning the solution of a braneworld Big Crunch/Big Bang Cosmology. In Section 4, we have described some equations concerning the generating ekpyrotic curvature perturbations before the Big Bang, some equations concerning the effective five-dimensional theory of the strongly coupled heterotic string as a gauged version of N=1five-dimensional supergravity with four-dimensional boundaries, and some equations concerning the colliding branes and the origin of the Hot Big Bang. In Section 5, we have described some equations regarding the “null energy condition” violation concerning the inflationary models and some equations concerning the evolution to a smooth universe in an ekpyrotic contracting phase with w>1. In Section 6, we have described some equations concerning the approximate inflationary solutions rolling away from the unstable maximum of p-adic string theory. In Section 7, we have described various equations concerning the p-adic minisuperspace model, zeta strings, zeta nonlocal scalar fields and p-adic and adelic quantum cosmology. In Section 8, we have shown various and interesting mathematical connections between some equations concerning the p-adic inflation, the p-adic quantum cosmology, the zeta strings and the brane collisions in string and M-theory. Furthermore, in each section, we have shown the mathematical connections with various sectors of Number Theory, principally the Ramanujan’s modular equations, the Aurea Ratio and the Fibonacci’s numbers.
文摘The need to standardise stratigraphical subdivisions of continuous marine sedimentary successions that outcrop for hundreds metres, using clearly defined points fixed in the field is strongly felt. A proposal is presented here to formalize regional stages for the Lower Pleistocene （Calabrian） and for the Middle Pleistocene （Ionian） in Italy. The sections are well exposed, carefully investigated using multiple criteria （an integrated stratigraphical approach） and located in the central part of the Mediterranean. This area is recognized worldwide as a classical region for the Neogene and the Pleistocene sequences. The terrestrial record is directly correlated with the deep-sea record, as determined from ODP Sites 653 （Tyrrhenian Sea）, 963 （Sicily Channel） and 964 （Ionian Sea）from the central Mediterranean. The present formal proposal is consistent with the INQUA and ICS decision to define and correlate the Plio/Pleistocene boundary （GSSP at Vrica） within the Olduvai Subchron, at 1.81 My, the Lower/Middle Pleistocene boundary at the Matuyama/Brunhes reversal at 0. 78 My and the Middle/ Upper Pleistocene boundary with the base of MIS 5, approximately 0. 13My. The present proposal also is consistent with the call for stage unit stratotypes that emphasize both the physical content of a stage and its boundaries （Hilgen et al., 2006）.
基金supported by Peking University and NSFC(grant 40702001)by a grant from UNIMI Chancellorand FIRST funds for the Italian team
文摘Two complete specimens from the Pelsonian （Middle Anisian, Middle Triassic） of Luoping, Yunnan Province, South China are referred to a new actinopterygian genus, Luopingichthys gen. nov., and ascribed to the perleidiform family Polzbergidae based especially on a typical synapomorphy of a peculiar premaxillary-maxillary complex, i.e., the fusion between premaxillary and maxillary along the antero-dorsal margin of the maxillary. The new taxon differs from other deep-bodied representatives of the family, Felberia and Stoppania, in its fusiform or deep fusiform body shape; sickle-shaped preopercular with short infraorbital process; lack of modified scales at the base of the anal fin; the short-based dorsal fin; scarcely ornamented scales; and thin anterior teeth. Based on a redescription of the holotype of the taxon Ctenognathichthys hattichi from the Middle Triassic （Ladinian） Prosanto Formation, Canton Graubiinden, eastern Switzerland, the only known specimen, which shows the same fusion between premaxillary and maxillary, the systematic position of the species is clarified and the taxon is proposed to be a further representative of the family Polzbergidae, and is transferred to the new genus.
文摘The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point （GSSP） for the base of the Ladinian Stage （Middle Triassic） is defined in the Caffaro river bed （45°49＇09.5＂N, 10°28＇15.5＂E）, south of the village of Bagolino （Province of Brescia, northern Italy）, at the base of a 15-20-cm-thick limestone bed overlying a distinct groove （＂Chiesense groove ＂） of limestone nodules in a shaly matrix, located about 5 m above the base of the Buchenstein Formation. The lower surface of the thick limestone bed has the lowest occurrence of the ammonoid Eoprotrachyceras curionii （base of the E. curionii Zone; onset of the Trachyceratidae ammonoid family）. Secondary global markers in the uppermost Anisian include the lowest occurrence of conodont Neogondolella praehungafica and a brief normal-polarity magnetic zone recognized in closely correlated sections including the principal auxiliary section at Seceda in the Dolomites. The GSSP-level is bracketed by U-Pb single zircon age data from volcaniclastic horizons, indicating a boundary age of ca 241 Ma.
文摘We report equilibrium sapphirine ＋ quartz assemblage in biotite-orthopyroxene-garnet granulites from a new locality in Panasapattu of Paderu region in the Eastern Ghats granulite belt, which provide new evidence for ultrahigh-temperature （UHT） metamorphism at 1030-1050 ℃ and 10 kbar in this region. The development of migmatitic texture, stabilization of the garnet-orthopyroxene- plagioclase-K-feldspar association, prograde biotite inclusions within garnet and sapphirine as well as sapphirine and cordierite inclusions within garnet in these granulites indicate that the observed peak assemblages probably formed during prograde dehydration melting of a Bt-Sill-Qtz assemblage, and constrain the prograde stage of the p--T path. The core domains of orthopyroxene porphyroblasts have up to w（Al203） 9.6%, which suggest that the temperatures reached up to 1150 ~C suggesting extreme crustal metamorphism. These conditions were also confirmed by the garnet-orthopyroxene thermobar- ometery, which yields a p--T range of 1012--960 ~C and 9.4 kbar. The p--T phase topologies computed using isochemical sections calculated in the model system Na20-CaO-K20--FeO-MgO-A1203-SiO2 --H2O （NCKFMASH） for metapelites, garnet-free sapphirine granulites and garnet-bearing sapphirine granulites match the melt-bearing assemblages observed in these rocks. Isochemical sections constructed in the NCKFMASH system for an average sub-aluminous metapelite bulk composition, and contoured for modal proportions of melt and garnet, as well as for the compositional isopleths of garnet, predict phase and reaction relations that are consistent with those observed in the rocks. Garnet and orthopyroxene contain Ti-rich phlogopite inclusions, suggesting formation by prograde melting reactions at the expense of phlogopite during ultrahigh-temperature conditions. These p--T results underestimate ＇peak＇ condi- tions, in part as a result of the modification of garnet compositions in the domains where some melt was retained. The post-peak evolution is constrained by a succession of melt-present reactions that occur at p 〈 10 kbar, inferred from micro-structural relations among various minerals. After high-temperature decompression from the metamorphic peak, the p--T path followed a near isobaric cooling stage to T 〈 900℃. The UHT rocks investigated in this study occur within a continental collision suture which witnessed prolonged subduction-accretion history prior to the final collision. We correlate the extreme metamorphism and the stabilization of UHT mineral assemblages to heat and volatile input from an upwelled asthenosphere during subduction--collision tectonics in a Proterozoic convergent plate margin.
文摘Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease(NAFLD) is emerging as one of the most common liver diseases,leading to the increasing interest for new therapeutic approaches for its treatment.NAFLD primarily depends on a hypercaloric and/or unbalanced diet leading to overweight and obesity.The liver,in fact,plays a central role in lipid metabolism by importing free fatty acids from the blood and synthesizing,storing,oxidizing and exporting lipids.Furthermore,the liver is the target for the thyroid hormones,thyroxine(T4) and 3,3',5-triiodo-L-thyronine(T3),that stimulate the basal metabolic rate and lead to body weight loss.In the last decade,other iodothyronines have been shown to possess biological relevance and play some thyromimetic activities; in particular,3,5-diiodo-L-thyronine(T2) gained large interest.The global effect of iodothyronines on liver lipid metabolism results from the balance between direct and indirect actions on the hepatocyte,leading to stimulation of lipid synthesis,oxidation and autophagy.In this review,the results so far obtained on both in vivo and in vitro models of hepatosteatosis are summarized in order to obtain an updated picture of the lipid-lowering effects of iodothyronines on mammalian liver.
基金supported by the Italian Ministry of Education,University and Research (MIUR),project "Programma di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale"-[PRIN 2015C5LN35] "Melt-rock reaction and melt migration in the MORB mantle through combined natural and experimental studies"
文摘The compositional variability of the lithospheric mantle at extensional settings is largely caused by the reactive percolation of uprising melts in the thermal boundary layer and in lithospheric environments.The Alpine-Apennine(A-A)ophiolites are predominantly constituted by mantle peridotites and are widely thought to represent analogs of the oceanic lithosphere formed at ocean/continent transition and slow-to ultraslow-spreading settings.Structural and geochemical studies on the A-A mantle peridotites have revealed that they preserve significant compositional and isotopic heterogeneity at variable scale,reflecting a long-lived multi-stage melt migration,intrusion and melt-rock interaction history,occurred at different lithospheric depths during progressive uplift.The A-A mantle peridotites thus constitute a unique window on mantle dynamics and lithosphere-asthenosphere interactions in very slow spreading environments.In this work,we review field,microstructural and chemical-isotopic evidence on the major stages of melt percolation and melt-rock interaction recorded by the A-A peridotites and discuss their consequences in creating chemical-isotopic heterogeneities at variable scales and enhancing weakening and deformation of the extending mantle.Focus will be on three most important stages:(i)old(pre-Jurassic)pyroxenite emplacement,and the significant isotopic modification induced in the host mantle by pyroxenite-derived melts,(ii)melt-peridotite interactions during Jurassic mantle exhumation,i.e.the open-system reactive porous flow at spinel facies depths causing bulk depletion(origin of reactive harzburgites and dunites),and the shallower melt impregnation which originated plagioclase-rich peridotites and an overall mantle refertilization.We infer that migrating melts largely originated as shallow,variably depleted,melt fractions,and acquired Si-rich composition by reactive dissolution of mantle pyroxenes during upward migration.Such melt-rock reaction processes share significant similarities with those documented in modern oceanic peridotites from slow-to ultraslow-spreading environments and track the progressive exhumation of large mantle sectors at shallow depths in oceanic settings where a thicker thermal boundary layer exists,as a consequence of slow-spreading rate.
基金funded by Ente di Gestione delle Aree protette delle Alpi Marittime(Managing Body of protected areas of Maritime Alps)for the research project“Monitoraggio della vegetazione periglaciale dei ghiacciai Clapier e Peirabroc(Alpi Marittime)”,(Monitoring of proglacial vegetation of Clapier and Peirabrocn glaciers(Maritime Alps))within the project ALCOTRA n.1711 CClima TT。
文摘We applied a multi-taxa approach integrating the co-occurrence of plants,ground beetles,spiders and springtails with soil parameters(temperatures and chemical characteristics)in order to describe the primary succession along two glacier forelands in the Maritime Alps(Italy),a hotspot of Mediterranean biodiversity.We compared these successions to those from Central Alps:Maritime glacier forelands markedly differ for their higher values of species richness and species turnover.Contrary to our expectation,Maritime glacier forelands follow a‘replacement change model’,like continental succession of Inner Alps and differently from other peripheral successions.We propose that the temperatures along these Mediterranean glacier forelands are warmer than those along other Alpine glacier forelands,which promote the faster species turnover.Furthermore,we found that early and mid successional stages of the investigated glaciers are richer in cold-adapted and endemic species than the later ones:we confirmed that the‘replacement change’model disadvantages pioneer,cold-adapted species.Given the overall correspondence among coldadapted and endemic species,the most threatened in this climate phase,our results raise new concerns about the extinction risk of these species.We also describe supraglacial habitat of Maritime glaciers demonstrating that supraglacial debris represents an environment decoupled from the regional climate and may have an important role as refugium for coldadapted and hygrophilous plant and animal species,whose survival can be threatened by climate change and by a rapid ecological succession in the adjacent forelands.
基金funded by Darius Project(Head M.Marroni)by the PRA project of the Pisa University(Head S.Rocchi),grants from IGG-CNRFAR-2018 Project of the Ferrara University(Head E.S.and V.L.)。
文摘The Durkan Complex is a key tectonic element of the Makran accretionary prism(SE Iran)and it has been interpreted as representing a continental margin succession.We present here a multidisciplinary study of the western Durkan Complex,which is based on new geological,stratigraphic,biostratigraphic data,as well as geochemical data of the volcanic and meta-volcanic rocks forming this complex.Our data show that this complex consists of distinct tectonic slices showing both non-metamorphic and very low-grade metamorphic deformed successions.Stratigraphic and biostratigraphic data allow us to recognize three types of successions.Type-Ⅰis composed by a Coniacian-early Campanian pelagic succession with intercalation of pillow lavas and minor volcaniclastic rocks.Type-Ⅱsuccession includes a volcanic sequence passing to a volcano-sedimentary sequence with Cenomanian pelagic limestones,followed by a hemipelagic sequence.This succession is characterized by abundant mass-transport deposits.Type-Ⅲsuccession includes volcanic and volcano-sedimentary sequences,which are stratigraphically covered by a Cenomanian platform succession.The latter is locally followed by a hemipelagic sequence.The volcanic rocks in the different successions show alkaline geochemical affinity,suggesting an origin from an oceanic within-plate setting.Our new results indicate that the western Durkan Complex represents fragments of seamounts tectonically incorporated in the Makran accretionary wedge during the latest Late Cretaceous-Paleocene.We propose that incorporation of seamounts in the frontal prism caused a shortening of the whole convergent margin and possibly contributed to controlling the deformation style in the Makran Accretionary Wedge during Late Cretaceous-Paleocene times.
文摘A broad set of samples from the CVP has been analyzing Pb isotopes. Campanian Volcanic Province (CVP) has been produced by various ranges of mixing between three components: 1) MORB, 2) Hercynian basement and 3) upper crust. Anyhow, the upper crust that has modified the Pb isotopic composition also shows trends towards an Achaean upper crust. This is consistent for all Mediterranean area. This is not in contrast with the past plate tectonic reconstruction. Also the surface sediments (GLOSS) may have been a mixing between the Achaean upper crust and a Hercynian component with an implication worldwide due to the rock cycle processes.
文摘The Graeco-Roman harbor of Neapolis (Naples, Italy), chronologically constrained between the late 4th century BC and the 6th century AD, offers a unique sight on relationship between past and present into the history of the marine biodiversity. In fact, the digs expose fossil leaf of Posidonia oceanica with epiphytic communities of microorganisms. Posidonia oceanica is a seagrass endemic to theMediterraneanthat forms large meadows whose remains can persist in the sediment for thousands of years. In this communication, we report results of analyses carried out using both molecular and morphological techniques on sub-fossil leaves of P. oceanica and their associated epiphytic communities.
文摘In this study, superficial marine sediments collected from 96 sampling sites were analyzed for 53 inorganic elements. Each sample was digested in aqua regia and analyzed by ICP-MS. A developed multifractal inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation method was applied for the compilation of interpolated maps for both single element and factor scores distributions. R-mode factor analysis have been performed on 23 of 53 analyzed elements. The 3 factor model, accounting 84.9% of data variability, were chosen, The three elemental associations obtained have been very helpful to distinguish anthropogenic from geogenic contribution. The aim of this study is to distinguish distribution patterns of pollutants on the sea floor of NaplesandSalernobays. In general, local lithologies, water dynamic and anthropogenic activities determine the distribution of the analyzed elements. To estimate pollution level in the area, Italian guidance, Canadian sediment quality guidance and Long’s criteria are chosen to set the comparability. As the results shows, arsenic and lead may present highly adverse effect to living creatures.
基金supported by theNSFC(grants no.40572004 and 40702001)
文摘Saurichthys dawaziensis sp. nov., from the third member of the Gejiu Formation （Anisian of Middle Triassic） in the vicinity of Luoping, Yunnan Province, is a small to mediumsized saurichthyid fish. It is characterized by the efferent pseudobranchial arteries penetrating on the parasphenoid and the mandible sensory canal with a branch in the angular. The new species is more derived than the Lower Triassic species in having a relatively narrow postorbital region, short preopercular, single ossification of the sclerotic ring, small haemal arches between the pelvic fins and the anal fin without ossified spines, and in the absence of quadratojugal. It is more primitive than the Middle and Upper Triassic Saurichthys in having fringing fulcra and numerous segments in the unpaired fins, and the presence of both prae- and post-zygapophyses in the neural arches. Some anatomic changes related to the vertebral column and unpaired fins of the genus are also discussed.
基金supported by research grants from Universita di Torino (Ricerca Locale "ex 60%" 2014—2018)the Italian Ministry of University and Research ("Finanziamento annuale individuale delle attivita base di ricerca" 2017) to A.Festa and G.Balestro, and from "Comune di Tavagnasco" to S.De Caroli and A.Succo
文摘The Canavese Zone(CZ)in the Western Alps represents the remnant of the distal passive margin of the Adria microplate,which was stretched and thinned during the Jurassic opening of the Alpine Tethys.Through detailed geological mapping,stratigraphic and structural analyses,we document that the continental break-up of Pangea and tectonic dismemberment of the Adria distal margin,up to mantle rocks exhumation and oceanization,did not simply result from the syn-rift Jurassic extension but was strongly favored by older structu ral inheritances(the Proto-Canavese Shear Zone),which controlled earlier lithospheric weakness.Our findings allowed to redefine in detail(i)the tectono-stratigraphic setting of the Variscan metamorphic basement and the Late Carbonife rous to Early Cretaceous CZ succession,(ii)the role played by inherited Late Carboniferous to Early Triassic structures and(iii)the significance of the CZ in the geodynamic evolution of the Alpine Tethys.The large amount of extensional displacement and crustal thinning occurred during different pulses of Late Carbonife rous-Early Triassic strike-slip tectonics is wellconsistent with the role played by long-lived regional-scale wrench faults(e.g.,the East-Variscan Shear Zone),suggesting a re-discussion of models of mantle exhumation driven by low-angle detachment faults as unique efficient mechanism in stretching and thinning continental crust.
基金supported by GTK (internal funding)EU Life-Environment Program (RAMAS project)EU Life+Project focusing on natural aggregate resources (ASROCKS)
文摘The study illustrates the critical role of accurate geological structural mapping to delineate crystalline aquifer zones more prone to high health risk due to elevated dissolved As in drinking wells.The analysis revisits the results from more than 1200 groundwater samples collected over ten years from domestic wells across the Tampere region (Finland).It is demonstrated that the highest dissolved As concentrations in the region (up to 2230 mg/L) are exclusively found near major faults and deformation zones (FDZs) detected via geophysical and geological surveys,and that a clear correlation exists between dissolved concentrations and the distance from the FDZs (r).Almost all values exceeding the drinking water limit (10 mg/L) occur at r < 8 km,while concentrations above 100 mg/L occur at r < 4 km.Solidphase As concentrations in bedrock show less dependency on FDZ than aqueous concentrations.This behavior is explained considering different mechanisms,which include enhanced sulfide oxidation and fracture connectivity,promoting preferential transport of dissolved As to FDZs and mixing of waters from different redox zones,mobilizing preferentially As(III) or As(V).Fe hydro-oxides may also precipitate/ dissolve preferentially because of FDZs,while residence time may influence the contact time between water and As-bearing minerals.It is concluded that the accurate mapping of FDZs,and in general of structural geology,provides an important preliminary information to identify where localized,sitespecific characterization of hydrogeology and geochemistry is more urgent to reduce As-related health risk from groundwater intake.
文摘Is the westerly rotation of the lithosphere an ephemeral accidental recent phenomenon or is it a stable process of Earth's geodynamics? The reason why the tidal drag has been questioned as the mechanism determining the lithospheric shift relative to the underlying mantle is the apparent too high viscosity of the asthenosphere. However, plate boundaries asymmetries are a robust indication of the 'westerly'decoupling of the entire Earth's outer lithospheric shell and new studies support lower viscosities in the low-velocity layer(LVZ) atop the asthenosphere. Since the solid Earth tide oscillation is longer in one side relative to the other due to the contemporaneous Moon's revolution, we demonstrate that a non-linear rheological behavior is expected in the lithosphere mantle interplay. This may provide a sort of ratchet favoring lowering of the LVZ viscosity under shear, allowing decoupling in the LVZ and triggering the westerly motion of the lithosphere relative to the mantle.
基金provided by the Italian Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri-Dipartimento della Protezione Civile(DPC) within the INGV-DPC 2007-2009 agreement(project S1),Sapienza University and CNR-EurocoresTopoEurope
文摘We propose that the brittle-ductile transition （BDT） controls the seismic cycle. In particular, the movements detected by space geodesy record the steady state deformation in the ductile lower crust, whereas the stick-slip behavior of the brittle upper crust is constrained by its larger friction. GPS data allow analyzing the strain rate along active plate boundaries. In all tectonic settings, we propose that earthquakes primarily occur along active fault segments characterized by relative minima of strain rate, segments which are locked or slowly creeping. We discuss regional examples where large earthquakes happened in areas of relative low strain rate. Regardless the tectonic style, the interseismic stress and strain pattern inverts during the coseismic stage. Where a dilated band formed during the interseismic stage, this will be shortened at the coseismic stage, and vice-versa what was previously shortened, it will be dilated. The interseismic energy accumulation and the coseismic expenditure rather depend on the tectonic setting （extensional, contractional, or strike-slip）. The gravitational potential energy dominates along normal faults, whereas the elastic energy prevails for thrust earthquakes and performs work against the gravity force. The energy budget in strike-slip tectonic setting is also primarily due elastic energy. Therefore, precursors may be different as a function of the tectonic setting. In this model, with a given displacement, the magnitude of an earthquake results from the coseismic slip of the deformed volume above the BDT rather than only on the fault length, and it also depends on the fault kinematics.
