Based on the Mach＇s principle and the characteristic mass of the present universe, Mo a c3/2GHo, it is noticed that, ＇rate of decrease in the laboratory fine structure ratio＇ is a measure of the cosmic rate of expa...Based on the Mach＇s principle and the characteristic mass of the present universe, Mo a c3/2GHo, it is noticed that, ＇rate of decrease in the laboratory fine structure ratio＇ is a measure of the cosmic rate of expansion. If the observed laboratory fine structure ratio is a constant, then, independent of the cosmic red shift and CMBR observations, it can be suggested that, at present there is no cosmic acceleration. Obtained value of the present Hubble constant is 70.75 Km/sec/Mpc. If it is true that, rate of decrease in temperature is a measure of cosmic rate of expansion, then from the observed cosmic isotropy it can also be suggested that, at present there is no cosmic acceleration. At present if the characteristic mass of the universe is, Mo = c3/2GHo and if the primordial universe is a natural setting for the creation of black holes and other non-perturbative gravitational entities, it is also possible to assume that throughout its journey, the whole universe is a primordial growing and light speed rotating black hole. At any time, if cot is the angular velocity, then cosmic radius is c/ω1 and cosmic mass is c3/2Gω1 Instead of the Planck mass, initial conditions can be addressed with the Coulomb mass = Mc = √/4xeoG At present, if ω1= H0 the cosmic black hole＇s volume density, observed matter density and the thermal energy density are in geometric series and the geometric ratio is 1 ＋ ln（M0 ＋Mc）.展开更多
Realistic FLRW cosmic coasting models which contain matter now appear to be a reasonable alternative in explaining the accumulated Supernova Cosmology Project data since 1998. In sharp contrast to the unrealistic orig...Realistic FLRW cosmic coasting models which contain matter now appear to be a reasonable alternative in explaining the accumulated Supernova Cosmology Project data since 1998. In sharp contrast to the unrealistic original classic Milne universe, which was entirely devoid of matter, these modified Milne-type models containing matter, often referred to as realistic linear Rh = ct models, have rapidly become the primary competition with standard cosmology. This paper compares the expected relative luminosity distances and relative angular diameter distances for given magnitudes of redshift within these two competing models. A simple ratio formula is derived, which explains how expected luminosity distances and angular diameter distances for given magnitudes of redshift within a realistic Milne-type cosmic expansion could create the illusion (for standard model proponents) of cosmic acceleration where none exists.展开更多
This paper integrates the Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term. The Lambda term within this model scales according to 3H2t/c2 and 3/R2t. Use of the Bekenstein-Ha...This paper integrates the Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term. The Lambda term within this model scales according to 3H2t/c2 and 3/R2t. Use of the Bekenstein-Hawking definition of closed gravitational system total entropy provides for FSC cosmic parameter definitions in terms of . Cosmic time, radius, total matter mass-energy and vacuum energy in this model scale in exactly the same way as . This analysis opens the way for understanding gravity, dark energy and dark matter as being deeply connected with cosmic entropy. The recent theoretical work of Roger Penrose and Erik Verlinde is discussed in this context. The results of this FSC model analysis dovetail nicely with Verlinde’s work suggesting gravity as being fundamentally an emergent property of cosmic entropy. This emergent-property-of-entropy definition of gravity, if true, would also indicate that gravitational inertia, dark matter and dark energy are simply manifestations of cosmic entropy. Thus, they would likely have no identifiable connection to quantum physics, including the standard particle model.展开更多
Einstein’s equivalence principle allows one to compare the magnitudes of a gravitational acceleration field with the magnitudes of a field of Unruh acceleration temperatures. The validity of such a comparison is demo...Einstein’s equivalence principle allows one to compare the magnitudes of a gravitational acceleration field with the magnitudes of a field of Unruh acceleration temperatures. The validity of such a comparison is demonstrated by using it to derive the effective Hawking black body radiation at a Schwarzschild black hole horizon. One can then extend the black hole thought experiment to a Hawking-Unruh temperature equation expressed in terms of the Schwarzschild radius. This follows an inverse radius law rather than an inverse radius-squared law. Following a brief discussion of current theoretical failures to explain galactic rotation curves, the Unruh acceleration temperature equations are brought together to show how a rotating supermassive black hole galactic system should follow an inverse radius rule of centripetal gravitational force and centripetal acceleration. This result appears to indicate that galactic observations currently attributed to dark matter may in part be attributed to classical Newtonian dynamics superimposed on a relativistic rotating system powered by a supermassive black hole.展开更多
Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) is a mathematical model of universal expansion which has proven to be remarkably accurate in comparison to observations. Temperature scaling is redefined in this paper in terms of a new “Un...Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) is a mathematical model of universal expansion which has proven to be remarkably accurate in comparison to observations. Temperature scaling is redefined in this paper in terms of a new “Universal Temperature” Tu scale according to Tu = T 2, where T 2 is in K2. This rescaling puts FSC cosmic temperature, time, total matter mass, and Hubble radius on the same scale, covering roughly 60.63 logs of 10 from the Planck scale to the present scale. This paper focuses on the relatively subtle temperature curve differences between the FSC model and standard cosmology. These changes become more pronounced in the early universe. Recent observational studies of the early universe, particularly with respect to the “cosmic dawn” epoch, the first stars and first galaxies, have surprised standard model proponents as to how soon these events have occurred following the Big Bang. This paper suggests that, because the FSC model temperature/time curve is lower at each stage of cosmic time, FSC may actually be a better fit for the timing of these events.展开更多
Cosmologists have long ignored a stipulation by quantum field theorists that the vacuum pressure p corresponding to the zero-state vacuum energy must always be equal in magnitude to the vacuum energy density ρ...Cosmologists have long ignored a stipulation by quantum field theorists that the vacuum pressure p corresponding to the zero-state vacuum energy must always be equal in magnitude to the vacuum energy density ρ(i.e., p=ρ). Although general relativity stipulates the additional condition of proportionality between the vacuum gravitational field and (ρ+3p), the equation of state for the cosmic vacuum must fulfill both relativistic and quantum stipulations. This paper fully integrates Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term, with interesting implications for the nature of dark energy, cosmic entropy and the entropic arrow of time. The FSC vacuum energy density is shown to be equal to the cosmic fluid bulk modulus at all times, thus meeting the quantum theory stipulation of (p=ρ). To date, FSC is the only viable dark energy cosmological model which has fully-integrated general relativity and quantum features.展开更多
This paper, in conjunction with recent Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) publications, provides theoretical support for cosmic time being an emergent property of cosmic entropy and temperature. Therefore, if Verlinde’s “em...This paper, in conjunction with recent Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) publications, provides theoretical support for cosmic time being an emergent property of cosmic entropy and temperature. Therefore, if Verlinde’s “emergent gravity” theory is correct, both time and gravity are most fundamentally emergent properties of cosmic thermodynamics. Since emergent properties within complex systems with a huge number of degrees of freedom are often not definable at the smallest scales, these results suggest that quantum time and quantum gravity may be no more definable than consciousness within two connecting neurons. String theorists now struggling to define quantum space-time and quantum gravity should bear this in mind.展开更多
We present a new model of cosmology which appears to show great promise. Our flat space cosmology model, using only four basic and reasonable assumptions, derives highly accurate Hubble parameter H0, Hubble radius R0 ...We present a new model of cosmology which appears to show great promise. Our flat space cosmology model, using only four basic and reasonable assumptions, derives highly accurate Hubble parameter H0, Hubble radius R0 and total mass M0 values for our observable universe. Our model derives a current Hubble parameter of , in excellent agreement with the newly reported (lower limit) results of the 2015 Planck Survey. Remarkably, all of these derivations can be made with only these basic assumptions and the current CMB radiation temperature . The thermodynamic equations we have generated follow Hawking’s black hole temperature formula. We have also derived a variety of other useful cosmological formulae. These include angular velocity and other rotational formulae. A particularly useful hyperbolic equation, , has been derived, which appears to be an excellent fit for the Planck scale as well as the current observable universe scale. Using the flat space Minkowski relativistic formula for Doppler effect, and a formula for staging our cosmological model according to its average mass-energy density at every Hubble time (universal age) in its expansion, a persuasive argument can be made that the observable phenomena attributed to dark energy are actually manifestations of Doppler and gravitational redshift. Finally, a theory of cosmic inflation becomes completely unnecessary because our flat space cosmology model is always at critical density.展开更多
We review here the recent success in modeling our expanding universe according to the rules of flat space cosmology. Given only a few basic and reasonable assumptions and a single observational input, our model derive...We review here the recent success in modeling our expanding universe according to the rules of flat space cosmology. Given only a few basic and reasonable assumptions and a single observational input, our model derives a variety of results which correlate with astronomical observations, including best estimates of the size, total mass, temperature, age and expansion rate of our observable universe. Considering the apparent success of our model, we attempt to explain why we think it works so well, including the fact that it incorporates elements of both general relativity and quantum mechanics. We offer this approach as a possible avenue towards understanding cosmology at the quantum level (“quantum gravity”).展开更多
We present a Machian model of Quantum Cosmology with full dark matter and light speed expansion and rotation. During galaxy formation and evolution, fraction of dark matter transforms to visible matter with a relation...We present a Machian model of Quantum Cosmology with full dark matter and light speed expansion and rotation. During galaxy formation and evolution, fraction of dark matter transforms to visible matter with a relation of the form, m_vis = constant * (m_dark)<sup>2/3</sup>. Using this relation and replacing MOND’s “critical acceleration” with “current cosmic maximum angular acceleration”, galactic flat rotation speed range of (50 to 500) km/sec can be fitted well. Estimated flat rotation speeds of DD168, Milky Way and UGC12591 are 49.96 km/sec, 199.66 km/sec and 521.75 km/sec respectively. Based on these striking coincidences, it is possible to say that, MOND’s approach is implicitly connected with cosmological estimation of 95% invisible matter. With reference to SPARC data for flat rotation speeds and current cosmic maximum angular acceleration, galactic total mass can be estimated. Considering galactic total mass, galactic visible mass and dark mass can be estimated. Proceeding further, galactic working radii, angular velocity and visible matter density can be estimated. Estimated Milky Way’s effective radius is 293 kpc. Even though, this model is free from “big bang”, “inflation”, “dark energy”, “flatness” and “red shift” issues, at 2.722 K, estimated present Hubble parameter is 66.24 km/sec/Mpc, cosmic radius is 146.3 times of the Hubble radius, angular velocity is 146.3 times lower than the Hubble parameter and cosmic age is 146.3 times of the Hubble age. With future observations and advanced telescopes, it may be possible to see far distant galaxies and very old stars far beyond the current observable cosmic radius.展开更多
Equations of Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) are utilized to characterize the model’s scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. A table relating cosmic age, cosmological redshift, and the temporal FSC Hubble parameter valu...Equations of Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) are utilized to characterize the model’s scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. A table relating cosmic age, cosmological redshift, and the temporal FSC Hubble parameter value is created. The resulting graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of cosmological (or galactic) redshift has a particularly interesting sinuous shape. This graph greatly resembles what ΛCDM proponents have been expecting for a scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. And yet, the FSC <em>R</em><sub><em>h</em></sub><em> = ct </em>model expansion, by definition, neither decelerates nor accelerates. It may well be that apparent early cosmic deceleration and late cosmic acceleration both ultimately prove to be illusions produced by a constant-velocity, linearly-expanding, FSC universe. Furthermore, as discussed herein, the FSC model would appear to strongly support Freedman<em> et al.</em> in the current Hubble tension debate, if approximately 14 Gyrs can be assumed to be the current cosmic age.展开更多
This brief note describes a method by which numerous empirically-determined quantum constants of nature can be substituted into Einstein’s field equation (EFE) for general relativity. This method involves treating th...This brief note describes a method by which numerous empirically-determined quantum constants of nature can be substituted into Einstein’s field equation (EFE) for general relativity. This method involves treating the ratio <em>G/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">ћ</span></span></span></span></em> as an empirical constant of nature in its own right. This ratio is repre- sented by a new symbol, <em>N</em><sub><em>T</em></sub>. It turns out that the value of <em>N</em><sub><em>T</em></sub> (which is 6.32891937 × 10<sup>23</sup> m<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">⋅</span></span></span></span></span></span>kg<sup>-2</sup><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">⋅</span></span></span></span></span></span>s<sup>-1</sup>) is within 5% of Avogadro’s number<em> N</em><sub><em>A</em></sub>, although the units are clearly different. Nevertheless, substitutions of <em>N</em><sub><em>T</em></sub> or <em>N</em><sub><em>A</em></sub> into the EFE, as shown, should yield an absolute value similar in magnitude to that calculated by the conventional EFE. The method described allows for quantum term EFE substitutions into Einstein’s gravitational constant <em>κ</em>. These terms include <em><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">ћ</span></span></span></span></em>, <em>α</em>, <em>m</em><sub><em>e</em></sub>, <em>m</em><sub><em>p</em></sub>, <em>R</em>, <em>k</em><sub><em>B</em></sub>, <em>F, e, M<sub>U</sub></em>, and <em>m</em><sub><em>U</em></sub>. More importantly, perhaps, one or more of the many new expressions given for <em>κ</em> may provide a more accurate result than <em>κ</em> incorporating <em>G</em>. If so, this may have important implications for additional forward progress towards unification. Whether any of these new expressions for Einstein’s field equation can move us closer to quantizing gravity remains to be determined.展开更多
The Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model is utilized to show how this model predicts the value of the Hubble parameter at each epoch of cosmic expansion. Specific attention in this paper is given to correlating the observ...The Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model is utilized to show how this model predicts the value of the Hubble parameter at each epoch of cosmic expansion. Specific attention in this paper is given to correlating the observable galactic redshifts since the beginning of the “cosmic dawn” reionization epoch. A graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of redshift z is presented as the FSC prediction of the pending Dark Energy Survey results. In the process, it is discovered that the obvious tension between the SHOES local Hubble constant value and the 2018 Planck Survey and the 2018 Dark Energy Survey global Hubble constant values may be explained by a time-variable, scalar, Hubble parameter acting in accordance with the FSC model.展开更多
文摘Based on the Mach＇s principle and the characteristic mass of the present universe, Mo a c3/2GHo, it is noticed that, ＇rate of decrease in the laboratory fine structure ratio＇ is a measure of the cosmic rate of expansion. If the observed laboratory fine structure ratio is a constant, then, independent of the cosmic red shift and CMBR observations, it can be suggested that, at present there is no cosmic acceleration. Obtained value of the present Hubble constant is 70.75 Km/sec/Mpc. If it is true that, rate of decrease in temperature is a measure of cosmic rate of expansion, then from the observed cosmic isotropy it can also be suggested that, at present there is no cosmic acceleration. At present if the characteristic mass of the universe is, Mo = c3/2GHo and if the primordial universe is a natural setting for the creation of black holes and other non-perturbative gravitational entities, it is also possible to assume that throughout its journey, the whole universe is a primordial growing and light speed rotating black hole. At any time, if cot is the angular velocity, then cosmic radius is c/ω1 and cosmic mass is c3/2Gω1 Instead of the Planck mass, initial conditions can be addressed with the Coulomb mass = Mc = √/4xeoG At present, if ω1= H0 the cosmic black hole＇s volume density, observed matter density and the thermal energy density are in geometric series and the geometric ratio is 1 ＋ ln（M0 ＋Mc）.
文摘Realistic FLRW cosmic coasting models which contain matter now appear to be a reasonable alternative in explaining the accumulated Supernova Cosmology Project data since 1998. In sharp contrast to the unrealistic original classic Milne universe, which was entirely devoid of matter, these modified Milne-type models containing matter, often referred to as realistic linear Rh = ct models, have rapidly become the primary competition with standard cosmology. This paper compares the expected relative luminosity distances and relative angular diameter distances for given magnitudes of redshift within these two competing models. A simple ratio formula is derived, which explains how expected luminosity distances and angular diameter distances for given magnitudes of redshift within a realistic Milne-type cosmic expansion could create the illusion (for standard model proponents) of cosmic acceleration where none exists.
文摘This paper integrates the Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term. The Lambda term within this model scales according to 3H2t/c2 and 3/R2t. Use of the Bekenstein-Hawking definition of closed gravitational system total entropy provides for FSC cosmic parameter definitions in terms of . Cosmic time, radius, total matter mass-energy and vacuum energy in this model scale in exactly the same way as . This analysis opens the way for understanding gravity, dark energy and dark matter as being deeply connected with cosmic entropy. The recent theoretical work of Roger Penrose and Erik Verlinde is discussed in this context. The results of this FSC model analysis dovetail nicely with Verlinde’s work suggesting gravity as being fundamentally an emergent property of cosmic entropy. This emergent-property-of-entropy definition of gravity, if true, would also indicate that gravitational inertia, dark matter and dark energy are simply manifestations of cosmic entropy. Thus, they would likely have no identifiable connection to quantum physics, including the standard particle model.
文摘Einstein’s equivalence principle allows one to compare the magnitudes of a gravitational acceleration field with the magnitudes of a field of Unruh acceleration temperatures. The validity of such a comparison is demonstrated by using it to derive the effective Hawking black body radiation at a Schwarzschild black hole horizon. One can then extend the black hole thought experiment to a Hawking-Unruh temperature equation expressed in terms of the Schwarzschild radius. This follows an inverse radius law rather than an inverse radius-squared law. Following a brief discussion of current theoretical failures to explain galactic rotation curves, the Unruh acceleration temperature equations are brought together to show how a rotating supermassive black hole galactic system should follow an inverse radius rule of centripetal gravitational force and centripetal acceleration. This result appears to indicate that galactic observations currently attributed to dark matter may in part be attributed to classical Newtonian dynamics superimposed on a relativistic rotating system powered by a supermassive black hole.
文摘Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) is a mathematical model of universal expansion which has proven to be remarkably accurate in comparison to observations. Temperature scaling is redefined in this paper in terms of a new “Universal Temperature” Tu scale according to Tu = T 2, where T 2 is in K2. This rescaling puts FSC cosmic temperature, time, total matter mass, and Hubble radius on the same scale, covering roughly 60.63 logs of 10 from the Planck scale to the present scale. This paper focuses on the relatively subtle temperature curve differences between the FSC model and standard cosmology. These changes become more pronounced in the early universe. Recent observational studies of the early universe, particularly with respect to the “cosmic dawn” epoch, the first stars and first galaxies, have surprised standard model proponents as to how soon these events have occurred following the Big Bang. This paper suggests that, because the FSC model temperature/time curve is lower at each stage of cosmic time, FSC may actually be a better fit for the timing of these events.
文摘Cosmologists have long ignored a stipulation by quantum field theorists that the vacuum pressure p corresponding to the zero-state vacuum energy must always be equal in magnitude to the vacuum energy density ρ(i.e., p=ρ). Although general relativity stipulates the additional condition of proportionality between the vacuum gravitational field and (ρ+3p), the equation of state for the cosmic vacuum must fulfill both relativistic and quantum stipulations. This paper fully integrates Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term, with interesting implications for the nature of dark energy, cosmic entropy and the entropic arrow of time. The FSC vacuum energy density is shown to be equal to the cosmic fluid bulk modulus at all times, thus meeting the quantum theory stipulation of (p=ρ). To date, FSC is the only viable dark energy cosmological model which has fully-integrated general relativity and quantum features.
文摘This paper, in conjunction with recent Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) publications, provides theoretical support for cosmic time being an emergent property of cosmic entropy and temperature. Therefore, if Verlinde’s “emergent gravity” theory is correct, both time and gravity are most fundamentally emergent properties of cosmic thermodynamics. Since emergent properties within complex systems with a huge number of degrees of freedom are often not definable at the smallest scales, these results suggest that quantum time and quantum gravity may be no more definable than consciousness within two connecting neurons. String theorists now struggling to define quantum space-time and quantum gravity should bear this in mind.
文摘We present a new model of cosmology which appears to show great promise. Our flat space cosmology model, using only four basic and reasonable assumptions, derives highly accurate Hubble parameter H0, Hubble radius R0 and total mass M0 values for our observable universe. Our model derives a current Hubble parameter of , in excellent agreement with the newly reported (lower limit) results of the 2015 Planck Survey. Remarkably, all of these derivations can be made with only these basic assumptions and the current CMB radiation temperature . The thermodynamic equations we have generated follow Hawking’s black hole temperature formula. We have also derived a variety of other useful cosmological formulae. These include angular velocity and other rotational formulae. A particularly useful hyperbolic equation, , has been derived, which appears to be an excellent fit for the Planck scale as well as the current observable universe scale. Using the flat space Minkowski relativistic formula for Doppler effect, and a formula for staging our cosmological model according to its average mass-energy density at every Hubble time (universal age) in its expansion, a persuasive argument can be made that the observable phenomena attributed to dark energy are actually manifestations of Doppler and gravitational redshift. Finally, a theory of cosmic inflation becomes completely unnecessary because our flat space cosmology model is always at critical density.
文摘We review here the recent success in modeling our expanding universe according to the rules of flat space cosmology. Given only a few basic and reasonable assumptions and a single observational input, our model derives a variety of results which correlate with astronomical observations, including best estimates of the size, total mass, temperature, age and expansion rate of our observable universe. Considering the apparent success of our model, we attempt to explain why we think it works so well, including the fact that it incorporates elements of both general relativity and quantum mechanics. We offer this approach as a possible avenue towards understanding cosmology at the quantum level (“quantum gravity”).
文摘We present a Machian model of Quantum Cosmology with full dark matter and light speed expansion and rotation. During galaxy formation and evolution, fraction of dark matter transforms to visible matter with a relation of the form, m_vis = constant * (m_dark)<sup>2/3</sup>. Using this relation and replacing MOND’s “critical acceleration” with “current cosmic maximum angular acceleration”, galactic flat rotation speed range of (50 to 500) km/sec can be fitted well. Estimated flat rotation speeds of DD168, Milky Way and UGC12591 are 49.96 km/sec, 199.66 km/sec and 521.75 km/sec respectively. Based on these striking coincidences, it is possible to say that, MOND’s approach is implicitly connected with cosmological estimation of 95% invisible matter. With reference to SPARC data for flat rotation speeds and current cosmic maximum angular acceleration, galactic total mass can be estimated. Considering galactic total mass, galactic visible mass and dark mass can be estimated. Proceeding further, galactic working radii, angular velocity and visible matter density can be estimated. Estimated Milky Way’s effective radius is 293 kpc. Even though, this model is free from “big bang”, “inflation”, “dark energy”, “flatness” and “red shift” issues, at 2.722 K, estimated present Hubble parameter is 66.24 km/sec/Mpc, cosmic radius is 146.3 times of the Hubble radius, angular velocity is 146.3 times lower than the Hubble parameter and cosmic age is 146.3 times of the Hubble age. With future observations and advanced telescopes, it may be possible to see far distant galaxies and very old stars far beyond the current observable cosmic radius.
文摘Equations of Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) are utilized to characterize the model’s scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. A table relating cosmic age, cosmological redshift, and the temporal FSC Hubble parameter value is created. The resulting graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of cosmological (or galactic) redshift has a particularly interesting sinuous shape. This graph greatly resembles what ΛCDM proponents have been expecting for a scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. And yet, the FSC <em>R</em><sub><em>h</em></sub><em> = ct </em>model expansion, by definition, neither decelerates nor accelerates. It may well be that apparent early cosmic deceleration and late cosmic acceleration both ultimately prove to be illusions produced by a constant-velocity, linearly-expanding, FSC universe. Furthermore, as discussed herein, the FSC model would appear to strongly support Freedman<em> et al.</em> in the current Hubble tension debate, if approximately 14 Gyrs can be assumed to be the current cosmic age.
文摘This brief note describes a method by which numerous empirically-determined quantum constants of nature can be substituted into Einstein’s field equation (EFE) for general relativity. This method involves treating the ratio <em>G/<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">ћ</span></span></span></span></em> as an empirical constant of nature in its own right. This ratio is repre- sented by a new symbol, <em>N</em><sub><em>T</em></sub>. It turns out that the value of <em>N</em><sub><em>T</em></sub> (which is 6.32891937 × 10<sup>23</sup> m<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">⋅</span></span></span></span></span></span>kg<sup>-2</sup><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">⋅</span></span></span></span></span></span>s<sup>-1</sup>) is within 5% of Avogadro’s number<em> N</em><sub><em>A</em></sub>, although the units are clearly different. Nevertheless, substitutions of <em>N</em><sub><em>T</em></sub> or <em>N</em><sub><em>A</em></sub> into the EFE, as shown, should yield an absolute value similar in magnitude to that calculated by the conventional EFE. The method described allows for quantum term EFE substitutions into Einstein’s gravitational constant <em>κ</em>. These terms include <em><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">ћ</span></span></span></span></em>, <em>α</em>, <em>m</em><sub><em>e</em></sub>, <em>m</em><sub><em>p</em></sub>, <em>R</em>, <em>k</em><sub><em>B</em></sub>, <em>F, e, M<sub>U</sub></em>, and <em>m</em><sub><em>U</em></sub>. More importantly, perhaps, one or more of the many new expressions given for <em>κ</em> may provide a more accurate result than <em>κ</em> incorporating <em>G</em>. If so, this may have important implications for additional forward progress towards unification. Whether any of these new expressions for Einstein’s field equation can move us closer to quantizing gravity remains to be determined.
文摘The Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model is utilized to show how this model predicts the value of the Hubble parameter at each epoch of cosmic expansion. Specific attention in this paper is given to correlating the observable galactic redshifts since the beginning of the “cosmic dawn” reionization epoch. A graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of redshift z is presented as the FSC prediction of the pending Dark Energy Survey results. In the process, it is discovered that the obvious tension between the SHOES local Hubble constant value and the 2018 Planck Survey and the 2018 Dark Energy Survey global Hubble constant values may be explained by a time-variable, scalar, Hubble parameter acting in accordance with the FSC model.
